📚 IGCSE AQA Philosophy: Key Terminology Quick Revision Guide | IGCSE AQA 哲学：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering philosophical terminology is essential for success in IGCSE AQA Philosophy. A strong grasp of key concepts allows you to construct coherent arguments, analyse complex issues, and evaluate different viewpoints with precision. This revision guide presents core terms grouped by topic, with clear explanations and memory aids to help you learn fast and retain effectively.
掌握哲学术语是 IGCSE AQA 哲学考试成功的关键。牢固掌握核心概念能让你构建连贯的论证、分析复杂议题，并准确评估不同观点。这份复习指南按主题分组呈现核心术语，配有清晰的解释和记忆窍门，帮助你快速学习并有效记忆。
1. Core Concepts in Philosophy | 哲学核心概念
A priori: Knowledge or justification that is independent of sense experience, derived solely through reason. Philosophers like Descartes used a priori reasoning to arrive at certain truths, such as 'I think, therefore I am'.
先验 (A priori): 独立于感官经验、仅通过理性获得的知识或论证。笛卡尔等哲学家使用先验推理得出确定真理，如“我思故我在”。
A posteriori: Knowledge that depends on empirical evidence or sense experience. The statement 'the cat is on the mat' is known a posteriori because we must observe the world to verify it.
后验 (A posteriori): 依赖经验证据或感官经验的知识。比如“猫在垫子上”是后验知识，因为我们必须观察世界才能验证。
Deductive argument: An argument where the conclusion necessarily follows from the premises; if the premises are true and the structure is valid, the conclusion must be true. For example, 'All humans are mortal; Socrates is a human; therefore Socrates is mortal.'
演绎论证 (Deductive argument): 结论必然从前提推出的论证；如果前提为真且结构有效，则结论必然为真。例如“人皆会死；苏格拉底是人；所以苏格拉底会死”。
Inductive argument: An argument where the premises make the conclusion probable but not certain. It moves from specific observations to general conclusions, such as 'The sun has risen every morning in recorded history; therefore the sun will rise tomorrow.'
归纳论证 (Inductive argument): 前提使结论可能为真但不具确定性的论证。它从特定观察推出一般结论，如“历史上太阳每天升起；所以明天太阳也会升起”。
Empiricism: The theory that all knowledge originates from sense experience. John Locke described the mind at birth as a 'tabula rasa' (blank slate) that experience fills.
经验主义 (Empiricism): 主张一切知识起源于感官经验的理论。约翰·洛克将出生时的心灵描述为“白板”，由经验填充。
2. Arguments for the Existence of God | 上帝存在的论证
Cosmological argument: An a posteriori argument that asserts the existence of God as the first cause or necessary being who explains why the universe exists. Thomas Aquinas proposed the 'First Cause' version, arguing that an infinite chain of causes is impossible.
宇宙论论证 (Cosmological argument): 一个后验论证，主张上帝作为第一因或必然存在者解释了宇宙为何存在。托马斯·阿奎那提出“第一因”版本，认为无限因果链不可能。
Teleological argument (Design argument): An a posteriori argument that infers the existence of an intelligent designer from apparent order, purpose, and complexity in the world. William Paley's watchmaker analogy exemplifies this: a watch requires a watchmaker.
目的论论证（设计论证）(Teleological argument): 一个后验论证，从世界中明显的秩序、目的和复杂性推断一位智慧设计者的存在。威廉·佩利的钟表匠类比即为一例：钟表需要钟表匠。
Ontological argument: An a priori argument that defines God as 'that than which nothing greater can be conceived' and concludes that God must exist in reality, because existence in reality is greater than existence only in the mind. Anselm of Canterbury formulated this argument.
本体论论证 (Ontological argument): 一个先验论证，将上帝定义为“无法设想比之更伟大的存在”，并断言上帝必在现实中存在，因为现实中的存在比仅在思想中存在更伟大。坎特伯雷的安瑟伦提出了这一论证。
Principle of Sufficient Reason: The principle that everything must have a reason, cause, or explanation. It is often used in cosmological arguments: the universe must have a sufficient reason for its existence, which is God.
充足理由律 (Principle of Sufficient Reason): 一切事物都必须有理由、原因或解释的原则。在宇宙论论证中常见：宇宙的存在必须有充足理由，即上帝。
3. The Nature of God | 上帝的本质
Omnipotent: The attribute of being all-powerful. In philosophy of religion, discussions often focus on whether omnipotence includes the ability to do logically impossible things, like creating a square circle.
全能的 (Omnipotent): 无所不能的属性。在宗教哲学中，讨论常围绕全能是否包含做逻辑上不可能之事的能力，如造出一个圆的方形。
Omniscient: The attribute of being all-knowing. An omniscient God knows everything about the past, present, and future, including all human actions and choices.
全知的 (Omniscient): 无所不知的属性。全知的上帝知道过去、现在和未来的一切，包括所有人类的行为和选择。
Omnibenevolent: The attribute of being perfectly good and morally perfect. The concept is central to the problem of evil: why would a wholly good God allow suffering?
全善的 (Omnibenevolent): 完全善良且道德完美的属性。这一概念是恶的问题的核心：全然良善的上帝为何容许苦难？
Eternal/timeless: The view that God exists outside of time, perceiving all moments simultaneously. This view can help explain how divine foreknowledge might coexist with human free will.
永恒的/超越时间的 (Eternal/timeless): 认为上帝存在于时间之外，同时感知所有时刻的观点。这种观点有助于解释预知与人类自由意志如何并存。
4. The Problem of Evil | 恶的问题
Moral evil: Suffering caused by the deliberate actions or negligence of free moral agents, such as murder, theft, or deceit. It raises the question of why God allows humans to commit such acts.
道德恶 (Moral evil): 由自由道德主体的蓄意行为或疏忽造成的苦难，如谋杀、盗窃或欺骗。它引发上帝为何允许人类犯下此类行为的疑问。
Natural evil: Suffering that results from natural processes without direct human agency, like earthquakes, diseases, or floods. It challenges the idea of a benevolent creator who designed the world.
自然恶 (Natural evil): 由自然过程造成、无直接人为参与的苦难，如地震、疾病或洪水。它挑战了仁慈造物主设计世界的观念。
Theodicy: An attempt to justify God's goodness despite the existence of evil. The term was coined by Leibniz, and famous theodicies include Augustine's 'soul-deciding' theodicy and Irenaeus' 'soul-making' theodicy.
神义论 (Theodicy): 尽管恶存在，仍试图为上帝的良善辩护的尝试。该词由莱布尼茨创造，著名神义论包括奥古斯丁的“灵魂抉择”神义论和爱任纽的“灵魂塑造”神义论。
Inconsistent triad: A logical formulation by J.L. Mackie that highlights the apparent contradiction between God's omnipotence, omnibenevolence, and the existence of evil. If two are true, the third seems false.
不一致三元组 (Inconsistent triad): J.L. 麦基提出的逻辑表述，凸显上帝的全能、全善与恶的存在之间的表面矛盾。若两者为真，第三者似为假。
Free-will defence: An argument that God permits evil because it is a necessary consequence of granting humans genuine free will, and a world with free will and moral growth is better than a world without it.
自由意志辩护 (Free-will defence): 一种论证，认为上帝允许恶，是因为它是赋予人类真正自由意志的必然结果，且拥有自由意志和道德成长的世界优于没有的世界。
5. Life After Death | 死后生命
Dualism: The belief that the mind (or soul) and the body are distinct substances. Substance dualists, like Plato and Descartes, argue that the soul can exist independently after bodily death.
二元论 (Dualism): 认为心灵（或灵魂）与身体是两种不同实体。实体二元论者如柏拉图和笛卡尔主张，灵魂能在身体死后独立存在。
Materialism (Physicalism): The view that only physical matter exists, and mental states are nothing more than brain processes. From this perspective, death marks the complete end of consciousness and personality.
唯物主义（物理主义）(Materialism): 认为只存在物质，心理状态不过是大脑过程的观点。从该视角看，死亡标志着意识和人格的完全终结。
Resurrection: The belief that God will physically raise the dead to a new, transformed bodily life. This is central to Christian and Islamic eschatology, and it differs from mere spiritual survival.
复活 (Resurrection): 相信上帝将使死者身体复活，获得新的、转化的身体生命。这是基督教和伊斯兰教末世论的核心，不同于单纯的精神存续。
Reincarnation: The belief that after death the soul is reborn into a new body. In Hindu and Buddhist traditions, the cycle of rebirth is influenced by karma, and liberation (moksha/nirvana) ends the cycle.
轮回 (Reincarnation): 相信死后灵魂投生到新身体。在印度教和佛教传统中，轮回之轮受业力影响，解脱（莫克沙/涅槃）终止此循环。
6. Ethical Theories | 伦理理论
Utilitarianism: A consequentialist ethical theory that judges the moral worth of an action by its outcome: the greatest happiness for the greatest number. Jeremy Bentham's hedonic calculus and John Stuart Mill's higher and lower pleasures are key ideas.
功利主义 (Utilitarianism): 一种后果论伦理理论，以结果评判行为的道德价值：最大多数人的最大幸福。边沁的快乐计算与密尔的高等和低等快乐是关键观点。
Deontology (Duty ethics): An ethical approach that judges actions based on adherence to rules or duties, regardless of consequences. Kant's categorical imperative is the classic example: act only according to rules that could become universal laws.
义务论（责任伦理）(Deontology): 基于规则或责任评判行为的伦理进路，不考量后果。康德的定言命令是经典：只按照能成为普遍规律的准则去行动。
Categorical imperative: Kant's unconditional moral law that commands certain actions simply because reason demands them. It contrasts with a hypothetical imperative, which applies only if you desire a particular outcome.
定言命令 (Categorical imperative): 康德无条件的道德法则，仅因理性要求而命令某些行为。与假言命令相对，后者仅在你有特定目标时适用。
Virtue ethics: An approach that focuses on the character of the moral agent rather than rules or consequences. Aristotle's ethics is based on the Golden Mean — cultivating virtues like courage and temperance to achieve eudaimonia (flourishing).
德性伦理 (Virtue ethics): 关注道德主体品格而非规则或后果的伦理进路。亚里士多德伦理学基于中道——培养勇敢、节制等德性以实现 eudaimonia（繁荣）。
7. Free Will and Determinism | 自由意志与决定论
Determinism: The philosophical view that all events, including human choices, are causally determined by prior states and natural laws. Hard determinists argue that free will is incompatible with this and is an illusion.
决定论 (Determinism): 认为所有事件包括人类选择皆被先前状态和自然法则因果决定。硬决定论者主张自由意志与此不容，且自由意志是幻觉。
Libertarianism (free will): The belief that humans possess genuine free will and that determinism is false. Libertarians often point to the subjective experience of choice and moral responsibility as evidence.
自由意志论 (Libertarianism): 相信人类拥有真正的自由意志且决定论为假。自由意志论者常以选择的主观体验和道德责任为证据。
Compatibilism (soft determinism): The idea that free will and determinism are compatible. A compatibilist argues that freedom means doing what you want without external coercion, even if your desires are themselves determined.
相容论（软决定论）(Compatibilism): 认为自由意志与决定论相容。相容论者主张，自由指不受外部强制做你想做的事，即便你的欲望本身已被决定。
Moral responsibility: The status of being accountable for one's actions. Philosophical debates ask whether moral responsibility requires free will and whether determinism undermines our blaming or praising practices.
道德责任 (Moral responsibility): 为自己的行为负责的状态。哲学争论询问道德责任是否需要自由意志，以及决定论是否削弱我们问责或赞扬的实践。
8. Epistemology: How We Know | 认识论：如何认知
Rationalism: The epistemological view that reason is the primary source and test of knowledge. Rationalists like Descartes and Leibniz believe that we can gain substantial knowledge about the world independent of sensory experience.
理性主义 (Rationalism): 认为理性是知识的首要来源与检验标准的认识论观点。笛卡尔和莱布尼茨等理性主义者相信，我们可独立于感官经验获得关于世界的实质性知识。
Innate ideas: Ideas or knowledge that are present in the mind from birth, not acquired through experience. Plato argued that learning is a kind of recollection (anamnesis) of innate knowledge from the realm of Forms.
天赋观念 (Innate ideas): 生来就在心中、非通过经验获得的观念或知识。柏拉图主张学习是对型式领域的天赋知识的回忆（遗忘）。
Tabula rasa: Latin for 'blank slate': the empiricist claim that there are no innate ideas, and all knowledge comes from experience and sense perception. John Locke famously used this term.
白板 (Tabula rasa): 拉丁文“空白板”：经验主义主张没有天赋观念，一切知识来自经验和感官知觉。约翰·洛克以使用此词闻名。
Perception: The process by which we become aware of the world through our senses. Epistemological questions concern the reliability of perception and whether we directly perceive objects or only mental representations.
知觉 (Perception): 通过感官感知世界的过程。认识论问题关乎知觉的可靠性，以及我们直接感知对象还是仅仅感知心理表征。
9. Philosophy of Mind | 心灵哲学
Substance dualism: The view that mind and body consist of two fundamentally different kinds of substance: mental and physical. Descartes argued that the mind is a thinking substance that can exist independently of the body.
实体二元论 (Substance dualism): 认为心灵与身体由两种根本不同的实体——精神与物质——构成的观点。笛卡尔论证，心灵是可独立于身体存在的思维实体。
Property dualism: The thesis that although there is only one substance (the physical), it has two distinct kinds of property: physical properties and mental properties. Mental properties, such as qualia, are not reducible to physical descriptions.
属性二元论 (Property dualism): 主张虽只有一种实体（物理实体），却有两类不同属性：物理属性和心理属性。心理属性如感受质不可还原为物理描述。
Qualia: The subjective, qualitative aspects of conscious experience, such as the redness of a rose or the pain of a headache. The problem of qualia is often used to challenge physicalist theories of mind.
感受质 (Qualia): 意识经验中主观的、质性的方面，如玫瑰的红色或头痛之痛。感受质问题常被用来挑战心灵物理主义理论。
Philosophical behaviourism: The view that mental states are nothing but dispositions to behave in certain ways. For a behaviourist, being 'happy' simply means being disposed to smile, laugh, and speak cheerfully.
哲学行为主义 (Philosophical behaviourism): 认为心理状态只是以特定方式行为的倾向。对行为主义者来说，“快乐”仅意味着倾向于微笑、大笑及说高兴的话。
10. Key Philosophical Skills | 关键哲学技巧
Assertion (claim): A statement that something is the case, which can be evaluated as true or false. In philosophical writing, every assertion should be supported by reasoning or evidence.
断言（主张）(Assertion): 宣称某事为真、可被评估为真假的陈述。在哲学写作中，每个断言都应得到推理或证据支持。
Premise: A proposition that forms the basis of an argument and is intended to support a conclusion. Sound arguments require true premises plus valid logical structure.
前提 (Premise): 构成论证基础、旨在支持结论的命题。健全的论证需要前提真实且逻辑结构有效。
Conclusion: The proposition that an argument aims to prove or support. In analysing a philosophical text, you should be able to identify premises and the conclusion that follows from them.
结论 (Conclusion): 论证旨在证明或支持的命题。分析哲学文本时，应能识别前提及其推导出的结论。
Valid argument: A deductive argument where the structure guarantees that if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true. Validity is about logical form, not actual truth.
有效论证 (Valid argument): 一种演绎论证，其结构保证若前提为真则结论必真。有效性关乎逻辑形式，而非实际真相。
Sound argument: A deductive argument that is both valid and has all true premises. It proves its conclusion conclusively.
健全论证 (Sound argument): 既有效且前提皆真的演绎论证。它确凿地证明其结论。
Counterexample: A specific example that refutes a universal claim or a definition. Producing a counterexample is a key skill in evaluating philosophical theories.
反例 (Counterexample): 驳斥普遍主张或定义的具体例子。提出反例是评价哲学理论的关键技能。
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