📚 Year 13 AQA Economics: Key Terminology Memorisation Guide | AQA经济A2词汇术语速记指南
Mastering AQA Year 13 Economics requires a deep understanding of precisely defined terminology. This guide walks you through the essential concepts, pairing each English term with a concise Chinese explanation and practical memory aid to help you recall definitions under exam pressure.
掌握 AQA 经济 A2 需要透彻理解定义精准的术语。本指南带你梳理核心概念，通过英中配对讲解与实用记忆辅助，帮助你在考试压力下精准复述定义。
1. Cost, Revenue and Profit Fundamentals | 成本、收益与利润基础
Opportunity cost is the value of the next best alternative forgone. Every economic decision involves opportunity cost, not just monetary cost.
机会成本 是放弃的次优选择的价值。每一个经济决策都涉及机会成本，而不仅仅是货币成本。
Short run is a period in which at least one factor of production is fixed. Total Fixed Costs (TFC) do not change with output; Total Variable Costs (TVC) vary directly with output.
短期 指至少一种生产要素固定的时期。总固定成本 (TFC) 不随产量变化；总可变成本 (TVC) 随产量直接变化。
Total Cost (TC) = TFC + TVC. Average Cost (AC or ATC) = TC / Q. Marginal Cost (MC) is the addition to TC from producing one more unit. MC cuts both AVC and ATC at their minimum points.
总成本 (TC) = TFC + TVC。平均成本 (AC 或 ATC) = TC / 产量。边际成本 (MC) 是多生产一单位产品带来的总成本增量。 MC 在 AVC 与 ATC 的最低点与之相交。
Economies of scale occur when long-run average cost falls as output expands; diseconomies of scale cause LRAC to rise. The lowest point of the LRAC curve is the Minimum Efficient Scale (MES).
规模经济 指长期平均成本随产量增加而下降；规模不经济 导致 LRAC 上升。 LRAC 曲线的最低点即最小有效规模 (MES)。
Total Revenue (TR) = Price × Quantity. Average Revenue (AR) = TR / Q, which is the demand curve. Marginal Revenue (MR) is the extra revenue from one more unit sold.
总收益 (TR) = 价格 × 数量。平均收益 (AR) = 总收益/数量，即需求曲线。边际收益 (MR) 是多售出一单位所带来的额外收益。
Normal profit is the minimum reward required to keep a firm in business (zero economic profit, where AR = ATC). Supernormal profit occurs when AR > ATC.
正常利润 是维持企业经营的起码回报（零经济利润，AR = ATC）。当 AR > ATC 时，存在超常利润。
2. Perfect Competition vs Monopoly | 完全竞争与垄断
Perfect competition Firms are price-takers, and the demand curve facing a firm is perfectly elastic (AR = MR).
完全竞争 具有大量企业、同质产品、完全信息、无进入退出壁垒等特征。企业是价格接受者，面临完全弹性的需求曲线 (AR = MR)。
In the long run, perfectly competitive firms achieve allocative efficiency (P = MC) and productive efficiency (producing at minimum ATC).
长期中，完全竞争企业实现配置效率 (P = MC) 和生产效率 (在最低 ATC 处生产)。
Monopoly is a market with a single seller, high barriers to entry, and price-making power. The monopolist faces a downward-sloping demand curve, and MR lies below AR.
垄断 是唯一卖方、高进入壁垒、具备定价能力的市场。垄断者面临向下倾斜的需求曲线，MR 位于 AR 下方。
olist produces where MC = MR and charges the price read off the demand curve. This creates deadweight loss and limits consumer surplus.
利润最大化垄断者在 MC = MR 处生产，并按需求曲线选取价格，这造成了无谓损失并减少消费者剩余。
Monopoly can be beneficial through dynamic efficiency (innovation) and economies of scale, especially when it is a natural monopoly. Regulators may use price controls or yardstick competition.
垄断可能通过动态效率（创新）和规模经济带来好处，尤其在自然垄断中。监管者可采取价格控制或区域间标尺竞争。
3. Imperfect Competition: Oligopoly and Monopolistic Competition | 不完全竞争：寡头与垄断竞争
Monopolistic competition combines many firms selling differentiated products with low barriers. In the short run, firms can earn supernormal profit; in the long run, new entrants shift demand until normal profit is restored (AR tangent to ATC).
垄断竞争 具有许多出售差异化产品的企业、低门槛等特点。短期企业可获超常利润，长期新进入者使需求曲线下移，直至恢复正常利润 (AR 与 ATC 相切)。
Oligopoly is characterised by a few interdependent firms, high concentration ratios, and strategic behaviour. Game theory models such as the prisoner's dilemma explain frictions in collusion.
寡头 由少数相互依存的企业构成，集中度高，存在策略性行为。博弈论模型（如囚徒困境）说明了合谋中的摩擦。
The kinked demand curve suggests price rigidity in oligopoly: rivals match price cuts but ignore price rises, creating a discontinuous MR curve. This explains sticky prices even when costs change.
拐折需求曲线 假设对手跟进降价但不跟进提价，形成间断的 MR 曲线，解释了寡头市场中价格刚性现象。
Collusion can be overt (formal cartel) or tacit (price leadership). Collusive oligopoly acts like a monopoly, maximising joint profit, but faces the constant temptation to cheat.
合谋 可以是公开的（卡特尔）或默契的（价格领导制）。合谋寡头像垄断一样最大化联合利润，但始终面临背叛的诱惑。
Contestable markets emphasise the threat of entry: even a monopoly can behave competitively if barriers are low and sunk costs are minimal. The degree of contestability matters more than the number of firms.
可竞争市场 强调进入威胁：即便只有一家企业，若壁垒与沉没成本极低，也会被迫像竞争企业一样行事。可竞争程度比企业数量更重要。
4. Labour Market Dynamics | 劳动市场动态
Marginal Revenue Product (MRP) it-maximising firm hires labour up to the point where MRP = Marginal Cost of Labour (MCL).
边际收益产品 (MRP) = 边际实物产品 × 边际收益。利润最大化企业将雇佣劳动直到 MRP = 劳动边际成本 (MCL)。
In a perfectly competitive labour market, the firm is a wage-taker so MCL = wage. In monopsony, a single buyer of labour faces an upward-sloping supply curve and MCL > wage, leading to lower employment and wage.
完全竞争劳动市场里企业是工资接受者，MCL = 工资。买方垄断 中，单一买方面对向上倾斜的劳动供给曲线，MCL > 工资，导致就业量与工资均低于竞争水平。
Trade unions attempt to raise wages by restricting labour supply, raising MRP through productivity deals, or using collective bargaining. A bilateral monopoly exists when a union confronts a monopsonist.
工会 通过限制劳动供给、提高 MRP（提升生产率协议）或集体谈判来推高工资。当工会直面买方垄断时形成双边垄断。
Wage differentials arise from differences in human capital, compensating wage premiums, trade union power, discrimination, and geographical immobility. Gini coefficient and Lorenz curve measure income inequality.
工资差异 源于人力资本差异、补偿性工资溢价、工会力量、歧视与地域不流动性。基尼系数 和洛伦兹曲线衡量收入不平等。
5. Market Failure: Externalities and Public Goods | 市场失灵：外部性与公共物品
Negative externality occurs when the social cost exceeds the private cost (MSC > MPC). Overproduction results in deadweight loss. Example: pollution from a factory.
负外部性 指社会成本大于私人成本 (MSC > MPC)，导致过度生产与无谓损失。例如工厂污染。
Positive externality exists when social benefit exceeds private benefit (MSB > MPB). Under-consumption occurs, e.g. vaccinations. Merit goods generate positive externalities.
正外部性 是社会收益大于私人收益 (MSB > MPB) 的情形，导致消费不足，如疫苗。有益品会产生正外部性。
Public goods are non-rival and non-excludable, leading to the free-rider problem. Pure public goods (e.g. national defence) must be provided by the government to avoid market failure.
公共物品 具有非竞争性与非排他性，造成免费搭便车问题。纯公共物品（如国防）必须由政府提供以防止市场失灵。
A demerit good is over-consumed because consumers underestimate its harm (information failure). Governments may use indirect taxes, bans, or behavioural nudges.
有害品 因消费者低估其危害而过度消费（信息失灵）。政府可采用间接税、禁令或行为助推予以干预。
6. Government Microeconomic Intervention | 政府微观干预措施
A Pigouvian tax is set equal to the marginal external cost at the socially optimum output. It internalises the externality, shifting MPC towards MSC. Example: carbon tax.
庇古税 设定在等于社会最优产量处的边际外部成本。它将外部性内部化，使 MPC 向 MSC 靠拢。例如碳税。
Tradable pollution permits cap total emissions and allow firms to trade allowances. This creates a market price for pollution, incentivising firms to cut emissions where it is cheapest.
可交易排污许可 设定排放总量并允许企业交易配额，为污染创造市场价格，激励企业在成本最低处减排。
Minimum price (price floor) sets a legal price above equilibrium, causing excess supply. Maximum price (price ceiling) below equilibrium causes excess demand. Buffer stock schemes stabilise prices by buying/surplusing stock.
最低价格（价格下限） 设定高于均衡价格，导致超额供给。最高价格（价格上限）低于均衡，引发超额需求。缓冲库存通过买卖库存来稳定价格。
Government failure may arise from political pressures, imperfect information, unintended consequences, or administrative costs. Regulation and state provision also risk inefficiency if incentives are misaligned.
政府失灵可能源于政治压力、信息不完善、意外后果或行政成本。若激励错配，管制与国家提供同样可能导致低效。
7. Macroeconomic Indicators: Circular Flow and Multiplier | 宏观经济指标：循环流与乘数
The circular flow of income shows flows of money between households, firms, government and foreign sector. Leakages (savings, taxes, imports) equal injections (investment, government spending, exports) in equilibrium.
收入循环流动 描绘家庭、企业、政府与国外部门间的资金流。均衡时，漏出（储蓄、税收、进口）等于注入（投资、政府支出、出口）。
The multiplier effect means an initial injection leads to a larger final increase in national income. The formula: k = 1 / (1 − MPC) or 1 / MPW, where MPC is marginal propensity to consume, MPW is marginal propensity to withdraw.
乘数效应 指初始注入导致国民收入更大幅度的增加。公式：k = 1 / (1 − MPC) 或 1 / MPW，MPC 为边际消费倾向，MPW 为边际漏出倾向。
The accelerator links investment to the rate of change of national income. As growth accelerates, firms invest more in capital, reinforcing the cycle.
加速数 将投资与国民收入变化率联系起来。当增长加速时企业增加资本投资，强化周期。
8. Aggregate Demand and Aggregate Supply Analysis | 总需求与总供给分析
Aggregate Demand (AD) e to the wealth effect, trade effect and interest rate effect. Shifts come from changes in any component or confidence.
总需求 (AD) = C + I + G + (X − M)。因财富效应、贸易效应和利率效应而向下倾斜。任一分量的变动或信心变化均可造成平移。
Short-run Aggregate Supply (SRAS) is upward-sloping: firms increase output as prices rise because input costs are sticky. SRAS shifts with changes in production costs or supply shocks.
短期总供给 (SRAS) 向上倾斜：由于投入品价格黏性，价格上升时企业扩大产出。生产成本变动或供给冲击会使 SRAS 平移。
Long-run Aggregate Supply (LRAS) is vertical at the full employment level of output. Classical economists view LRAS as determined by the quantity and quality of factors of production. Keynesian LRAS is horizontal at low output, then upward, then vertical.
长期总供给 (LRAS) 在充分就业产量处垂直。古典学派认为 LRAS 取决于生产要素的数量与质量。凯恩斯 LRAS 在产出低位时呈水平状，之后向上倾斜并最终垂直。
An output gap exists when actual output deviates from potential. A negative output gap means idle resources and high unemployment; a positive gap suggests demand-pull inflation.
产出缺口 指实际产出偏离潜在水平。负产出缺口意味着资源闲置和高失业；正
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