📚 IGCSE AQA Psychology: Quick Reference Formulae & Theorems | IGCSE AQA 心理学：公式定理速查手册
This quick reference handbook consolidates the essential 'formulae' and 'theorems' for the IGCSE AQA Psychology specification. It translates key empirical findings and theoretical models into a digestible reference format, covering memory, perception, social influence, and research methods. Use this guide to reinforce your understanding of core concepts and their precise operational definitions.
这份速查手册汇总了IGCSE AQA心理学课程中至关重要的“公式”与“定理”。它将关键的实证研究发现和理论模型转化为易于消化的参考格式，涵盖记忆、感知、社会影响和研究方法。使用本指南来巩固你对核心概念及其精确操作性定义的理解。
1. The Conformity Equation | 从众公式
Asch' s majority. The general formula for calculating conformity rate is: (Number of Conforming Responses / Total Number of Critical Trials) × 100%.
阿希范式将从众定义为，在关键试验中，参与者为与一致多数保持一致而给出明显错误答案的百分比。计算从众率的一般公式为：（从众反应次数 ÷ 关键试验总次数）× 100%。
Milgram' edience occurs when an individual shifts from an autonomous state to an agentic state. The 'formula' oral strain is experienced when the agentic state is in conflict with the autonomous state's moral conscience: Moral Strain = Demands of Authority - Personal Conscience.
米尔格拉姆的代理理论指出，服从发生在个体从自主状态转变为代理状态时。当代理状态与自主状态的道德良知发生冲突时，就会体验到道德压力“公式”：道德压力 = 权威的要求 - 个人良知。
| Factor | Operational Definition | Impact on Obedience |
|---|---|---|
| Proximity | Physical closeness to the victim or authority | Decreased proximity to victim increases obedience |
| Uniform | Symbol of legitimate authority | Bickman (1974): Guard uniform 89% obedience |
2. The Memory Duration Formula | 记忆持续时间公式
fied the duration of short-term memory (STM) using the Brown-Peterson technique. The percentage of correct recall decays rapidly with an increase in the retention interval. The decay rate can be roughly modelled as: Recall Accuracy (% econds) + 90, demonstrating that without rehearsal, STM duration drops to approximately 10% after 18 seconds.
彼得森和彼得森（1959）使用布朗-彼得森技术确定了短时记忆（STM）的持续时间。正确回忆的百分比随着保持间隔的增加而迅速衰减。衰减率可粗略建模为：回忆准确率 (%) = -10 × 时间 (秒) + 90，这表明在没有复述的情况下，STM的持续时间在18秒后降至约10%。
) using a yearbook recall test. The recognition rate for faces after 47 years was about 60%. A predictive 'formula' for face recognition over years is: Recognition Rate ≈ 90 - 0.6 × Years Since Graduation.
巴里克等人（1975）使用年鉴回忆测试检查了长时记忆（LTM）的持续时间。47年后对人脸的识别率约为60%。预测多年来面部识别率的“公式”为：识别率 ≈ 90 - 0.6 × 毕业年数。
3. The Mean, Median, and Mode Formulae | 平均数、中位数和众数公式
These measures of central tendency are fundamental for data analysis in research methods questions. They summarise a data set with a single representative value.
这些集中趋势的度量是研究方法问题中数据分析的基础。它们用单一的典型值来概括数据集。
Mean: x̄ = (Σx) / n
Where Σx is the sum of all scores and n is the number of scores. The mean should be given to at least one decimal place more than the raw data.
其中 Σx 是所有分数的总和，n 是分数的个数。平均数应至少比原始数据多保留一位小数。
Median Location: Position = (n + 1) / 2
If the number of scores is even, the median is the average of the two middle scores. This is the middle value when data is ordered.
如果分数的数目是偶数，中位数是中间两个分数的平均值。这就是数据排序后的中间值。
The mode is simply the most frequently occurring value in a data set. A data set can have no mode, one mode (unimodal), or two modes (bimodal).
众数就是数据集中出现频率最高的值。一个数据集可能没有众数、有一个众数（单峰）或有两个众数（双峰）。
4. The Range and Outlier Rule | 范围与异常值法则
e - Minimum Value. A problem with the range is that it is easily distorted by extreme scores or anomalies.
范围是一种简单的离散度量。它是数据集中最高值和最低值之间的差。公式为：范围 = 最大值 - 最小值。范围的一个问题是它很容易被极端分数或异常值扭曲。
an (Lower Quartile - 1.5 × IQR) or greater than (Upper Quartile + 1.5 × IQR), where IQR is the Inter-Quartile Range.
异常值是指位于数据总体模式之外的极端分数。识别异常值的数学规则是：任何小于（下四分位数 - 1.5 × 四分位距）或大于（上四分位数 + 1.5 × 四分位距）的分数，其中 IQR 是四分位距。
5. The Multi-Store Model (MSM) Structure | 多存储模型 (MSM) 结构
Atkinson and Shiffrin' ree separate unitary stores. The logical sequence is: Sensory Register → Short-Term Memory ← y. The arrow from STM to LTM represents encoding, and the arrow back represents retrieval.
阿特金森和希夫林的定理宣称，记忆是信息流经三个独立的单一存储库的过程。逻辑顺序是：感觉登记器 → 短时记忆 ←→ 长时记忆。从STM指向LTM的箭头代表编码，反向箭头代表提取。
- Sensory Register: Duration is less than half a second; unlimited capacity; iconic/echoic encoding.
- 感觉登记器：持续时间小于半秒；容量无限；图像/声像编码。
- STM: Duration is 18-30 seconds; capacity is 7 ± 2 chunks; mainly acoustic encoding.
- 短时记忆：持续时间为18-30秒；容量为7 ± 2个组块；主要为声学编码。
- LTM: Duration is up to a lifetime; unlimited capacity; mainly semantic encoding.
- 长时记忆：持续时间可长达一生；容量无限大；主要为语义编码。
6. The Working Memory Model (WMM) Components | 工作记忆模型 (WMM) 组成部分
Baddeley and Hitch' ory Model is represented as a Central Executive supervising slave systems. The theoretical 'equation' emory = Central Executive + Phonological Loop + Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad + Episodic Buffer.
巴德利和希奇的工作记忆模型被描述为一个中央执行系统监督着从属系统。理论上的“方程”为：工作记忆 = 中央执行系统 + 语音回路 + 视觉空间画板 + 情景缓冲区。
The Phonological Loop comprises the Phonological Store (inner ear) and the Articulatory Control Process (inner voice). The Word Length Effect shows that short words are recalled better because they take less time to rehearse in the loop.
语音回路包含语音存储库（内耳）和发音控制过程（内语）。词长效应表明，短单词回忆效果更好，因为它们在回路中复述所需的时间更少。
7. Gibson's Direct Theory of Perception | 吉布森的直接知觉理论
Gibson' ry states that perception is direct and does not require inference or past experience. The 'formula' eptual Experience. Motion parallax is a key cue where closer objects appear to move faster than distant objects.
吉布森的生态学理论指出，知觉是直接的，不需要推理或过往经验。直接知觉的“公式”是：感觉输入 + 光阵列 + 示能性 → 知觉体验。运动视差是一个关键线索，即较近的物体看起来比较远的物体移动得更快。
Affordances are the potential uses of an object that are directly perceived, such as a chair 'affording' sitting. Texture gradient provides invariant information: the texture of a surface becomes denser as distance increases, giving a direct cue for depth.
示能性是指一个物体被直接感知到的潜在用途，比如一把椅子“提供”了坐的功能。纹理梯度提供了不变信息：随着距离的增加，表面的纹理变得更密集，为深度提供了直接线索。
8. Gregory's Constructivist Theory of Perception | 格雷戈里的建构主义知觉理论
ception is an active process of hypothesis testing using stored knowledge. The theoretical 'formula' Visual illusions occur when the hypothesis is wrong, as the brain correctly applies a rule that is incorrect in an artificial situation.
格雷戈里提出，知觉是一个利用已有知识进行假设检验的主动过程。理论上的“公式”是：感觉数据 + 推理（过往经验）= 知觉假设。视错觉发生在假设错误时，因为大脑正确地应用了一个在人为情境下并不正确的规则。
e appears longer because the brain scales it up assuming it is farther away, following the logic: Perceived Size = Retinal Size × Perceived Distance.
视觉线索的作用可以通过误用大小恒常性来解释。庞佐错觉表明，会聚的线条触发了深度线索；上面的线条看起来更长，因为大脑假定它更远而将其放大了，遵循以下逻辑：感知大小 = 视网膜大小 × 感知距离。
9. Piaget's Cognitive Development Stages | 皮亚杰的认知发展阶段
Piaget's theory proposes four invariant and universal stages. The sensorimotor stage sees the development of object permanence around 8 months. The pre-operational stage lacks class inclusion and conservation; a child cannot perform reverse mental operations, leading to centration.
皮亚杰的理论提出了四个不变的、普遍的阶段。感觉运动阶段在大约8个月时发展出客体永久性。前运算阶段缺乏类包含和守恒；儿童无法进行可逆的心理运算，从而导致中心化。
ss-sectional Area. A child now de-centers and recognises that the change in height is compensated by the change in width.
具体运算阶段（7-11岁）表现出对守恒的掌握。液体守恒的逻辑规则是：量 = 高度 × 横截面积。儿童现在能够去中心化，并认识到高度的变化被宽度的变化所补偿。
In the formal operational stage, children develop hypothetical-deductive reasoning. They can systematically test hypotheses using a logical formula: If P, then Q. Not-Q, therefore Not-P. This manifests in tasks like the pendulum problem where variables are isolated.
在形式运算阶段，儿童发展了假设-演绎推理能力。他们能够使用逻辑公式系统地检验假设：如果P，则Q。非Q，因此非P。这体现在像钟摆问题这样的任务中，变量被孤立出来进行操纵。
10. Brain Regions and Functions Theorem | 脑区与功能定理
ion where: Specific Cognitive Function = Activity in Localised Neural Circuitry. The four lobes and their key functions form the basic neuropsychological map.
功能定位定理指出，特定的大脑区域负责特定的行为。这是一个核心的生物学假设：特定认知功能 = 局部神经回路的活动。四个脑叶及其关键功能构成了基本的神经心理学地图。
- Frontal Lobe: Motor cortex and Broca's area; responsible for speech production and executive functions.
- 额叶：运动皮层和布罗卡区；负责言语产生和执行功能。
- Temporal Lobe: Auditory cortex and Wernicke's area; responsible for speech comprehension.
- 颞叶：听觉皮层和韦尼克区；负责言语理解。
- Occipital Lobe: Visual cortex; responsible for processing visual information from the retina.
- 枕叶：视觉皮层；负责处理来自视网膜的视觉信息。
- Parietal Lobe: Somatosensory cortex; responsible for processing touch, temperature, and pain signals.
- 顶叶：体感皮层；负责处理触觉、温度和疼痛信号。
11. Key Terminology and Operationalisation | 关键术语与操作化
Psychology requires precise operational definitions. Extraneous variables are 'nuisance' tandardised procedures is: Control = (Standardised Instructions) + (Constant Environment).
心理学要求精确的操作性定义。额外变量是可能会影响因变量并应被控制的“干扰”变量。标准化程序的公式是：控制 = （标准化指导语）+ （恒定环境）。
l in a memory study is: (Number of Items Correctly Recalled / Total Number of Items) × 100% of words recalled across participants helps compare conditions in experiments like Murdock's serial position curve study.
记忆研究中回忆百分率的计算方法是：（正确回忆的项目数 ÷ 总项目数）× 100%。被试平均回忆单词数的公式有助于在像默多克的系列位置曲线研究这样的实验中比较不同条件。
12. Ethical Principles Shorthand | 伦理原则速记
The BPS and AQA ethical guidelines form a non-negotiable theorem for research. The overarching rule is: Cost (Harm) < Benefit (Value). The specific principles can be remembered via the acronym C-DIP-W.
英国心理学会和AQA的伦理指南构成了研究中的铁定理。总体规则是：成本（伤害）< 收益（价值）。具体原则可以通过首字母缩略词 C-DIP-W 来记忆。
- Consent: Informed consent from participants or parents; retrospective consent after deception.
- 同意：来自参与者或家长的知情同意；欺骗后的回溯同意。
- Deception: Only lies about the aim if necessary; debrief fully afterwards.
- 欺骗：仅在必要时对目的撒谎；事后必须进行充分的事后解释。
- Invasion of Privacy: Do not observe in private places without consent.
- 侵犯隐私：未经同意不得在私人场所进行观察。
- Protection from Harm: Psychological and physical harm must be no greater than in everyday life.
- 保护免受伤害：心理和身体伤害不得大于日常生活中遇到的程度。
- Withdrawal: Right to withdraw data at any time without penalty.
- 退出权：有权随时无惩罚地退出并撤回数据。
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