📚 Year 13 SQA Sociology: Vocabulary & Terminology Quick-Memorisation Guide | Year 13 SQA 社会学：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering sociological terminology is essential for success in Year 13 SQA Sociology. This guide organises key terms by topic, providing memorable explanations, conceptual links, and efficient recall strategies. Whether you are preparing for Higher or Advanced Higher assessments, a strong command of vocabulary will sharpen your analysis and help you construct persuasive, evidence-based arguments.
掌握社会学术语是 Year 13 SQA 社会学取得高分的关键。本指南按主题梳理核心词汇，提供易记的释义、概念联系与高效记忆策略。无论你正在备考 Higher 还是 Advanced Higher，扎实的词汇功底都能提升你的分析能力，帮助你写出有说服力、基于证据的论述。
1. Core Theoretical Perspectives | 核心理论视角
Functionalism views society as a system of interconnected parts that work together to maintain stability and consensus. Comte, Durkheim, and Parsons emphasised social order, value consensus, and the organic analogy. When revising, link functionalism to 'body' – each organ (institution) serves a function for the whole.
功能主义将社会视为由相互联系的各个部分组成的系统，各部分相互协作以维持稳定与共识。孔德、涂尔干和帕森斯强调社会秩序、价值共识和有机体类比。复习时可将功能主义与“身体”联系起来——每一器官（制度）都为整体发挥功能。
Marxism, rooted in the work of Karl Marx, focuses on class conflict between the bourgeoisie (owners of the means of production) and the proletariat (workers). Memorise the base–superstructure model: the economic base shapes the superstructure of institutions, beliefs, and values. Class consciousness and false consciousness are recurring concepts in SQA essay questions.
马克思主义植根于马克思的著作，关注资产阶级（生产资料所有者）与无产阶级（工人）之间的阶级冲突。请记住经济基础—上层建筑模型：经济基础决定制度、信念和价值观的上层建筑。阶级意识与虚假意识是 SQA 论文题中反复出现的概念。
Feminism examines gender inequalities. Liberal feminists seek legal reforms, Marxist feminists link women's oppression to capitalism, and radical feminists argue that patriarchy is the primary form of oppression. Use the acronym 'LMR' (Liberal, Marxist, Radical) to recall the three main strands. Intersectionality, developed by Crenshaw, highlights how gender, class, and race interconnect.
女性主义研究性别不平等。自由女性主义寻求法律改革，马克思主义女性主义将妇女受压迫与资本主义联系起来，激进女性主义则认为父权制是最根本的压迫形式。可用首字母缩略词“LMR”（自由、马克思主义、激进）记住三大流派。由克伦肖提出的交叉性强调性别、阶级与种族如何相互交织。
rioritise micro-level interactions and the meanings individuals attach to behaviour. Weber's concept of Verstehen (empathetic understanding) and Mead's symbolic interactionism are vital. Think 'micro = microscope' – zooming in on small-scale, everyday interactions.
社会行动理论（互动论、现象学、常人方法学）注重微观层面的互动以及个体赋予行为的意义。韦伯的“理解”概念和米德的符号互动论至关重要。可以联想“微观”就是显微镜——聚焦于小规模日常互动。
2. Social Stratification & Inequality | 社会分层与不平等
Social stratification refers to the hierarchical arrangement of individuals in society based on wealth, status, and power. Three key dimensions are class, status, and party (Weber). Distinguish between ascribed status (born into) and achieved status (earned). Meritocracy, the belief that success is based on ability and effort, is frequently critiqued in SQA discussions of education and inequality.
社会分层指的是个体在社会中依据财富、地位和权力所形成的层级排列。三个关键维度是阶级、地位和政党（韦伯）。要区分先赋地位（生于其中）与自致地位（通过努力获得）。精英统治（认为成功基于能力与努力）在 SQA 教育和不平等的讨论中常受批判。
Social mobility can be intragenerational (within one person's lifetime) or intergenerational (between generations). Use the abbreviation 'intra = inside, inter = between' for quick recall. The 'glass ceiling' cribes invisible barriers preventing women and minorities from reaching top positions; the 'glass floor' protects the privileged from downward mobility.
社会流动可分为代内流动（个人一生中）和代际流动（代与代之间）。可用缩写记忆法：intra 指内部，inter 指代际之间。“玻璃天花板”形容阻碍女性和少数族裔升入高层的无形障碍；“玻璃地板”则保护特权阶层免于向下流动。
cessities) or relative (exclusion from the normal living standards of a society). Remember 'absolute = no basics, relative = compared to others' structural explanations focus on the unequal distribution of resources and opportunities.
贫困分为绝对贫困（缺乏基本生活必需品）和相对贫困（被排斥在社会正常生活标准之外）。可以这样记忆：“绝对”就是没有基本生存资料，“相对”是与他人比较。贫困文化论（刘易斯）和剥夺循环强调贫困如何自我复制，而结构性解释则关注资源和机会的不平等分配。
3. Sociology of Education | 教育社会学
The correspondence principle (Bowles & Gintis) suggests that the education system mirrors the workplace hierarchy, preparing students for their future roles in a capitalist economy. Link 'correspondence' to 'mirroring'. The hidden curriculum encompasses norms, values, and attitudes transmitted implicitly through school routines and teacher expectations.
对应原则（鲍尔斯与金蒂斯）认为，教育系统映射了职场等级制度，为学生未来在资本主义经济中的角色做准备。可将“对应”联想为“镜像”。隐性课程包括通过学校日常常规和教师期待所隐含传递的规范、价值观与态度。
and Hargreaves are key names. Memorise the sequence: label → student internalisation → behaviour matches label → prophecy fulfilled. Setting and streaming can reinforce labelling and widen the attainment gap.
标签理论受互动论启发，研究教师如何给学生贴标签，从而导致自我实现预言。关键学者有贝克尔和哈格里夫斯。记忆链条：标签 → 学生内化 → 行为符合标签 → 预言实现。分组与分轨教学会强化标签效应并拉大成绩差距。
Cultural capital (Bourdieu) refers to non-economic assets such as knowledge, language, and tastes that confer advantage in education. Middle-class children often possess cultural capital valued by schools, giving them a head start. To recall: 'capital' is like currency – it can be spent in the education market.
文化资本（布迪厄）指知识、语言和品味等非经济资产，这些资产在教育中具有优势。中产阶级儿童往往拥有学校所看重的文化资本，从而领先一步。记住：“资本”好比货币，可在教育市场中使用。
4. Crime, Deviance & Social Control | 犯罪、越轨与社会控制
Deviance is behaviour that violates social norms, while crime is behaviour that breaks formal laws. Not all deviance is criminal, and not all crime is considered deviant – think of 'D ≠ C' as a visual cue. Anomie (Durkheim) describes a state of normlessness where society's regulatory guidance breaks down, often linked to rapid social change.
越轨是违反社会规范的行为，犯罪则是触犯正式法律的行为。并非所有越轨都是犯罪，也并非所有犯罪都被视为越轨——可用“D ≠ C”作为视觉提示。失范（涂尔干）描述了一种规范缺失状态，社会调节指导瓦解，常与快速社会变迁相联系。
Strain theory (Merton) explains crime as a response to the gap between culturally approved goals and the legitimate means to achieve them. Merton's five adaptations: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and rebellion. Mnemonic: 'CIRRR' – Conform, Innovate, Ritualise, Retreat, Rebel. Subcultural theories (Cohen, Cloward & Ohlin) examine how delinquent subcultures emerge when status frustration develops.
紧张理论（默顿）将犯罪解释为文化认可的目标与实现这些目标的合法手段之间产生断裂的反应。默顿提出五种适应方式：遵从、创新、仪式主义、退却主义和反叛。记忆法：“CIRRR”——遵从、创新、仪式、退却、反叛。亚文化理论（科恩、克洛沃德与奥林）探讨当地位挫折感产生时，越轨亚文化如何兴起。
Labelling in crime emphasises how criminal identity is socially constructed. Becker's outsiders, Lemert's distinction between primary and secondary deviance, and the concept of 'deviancy amplification' unnoticed or excused; secondary = labelled and internalised, leading to a criminal career.
犯罪中的标签理论强调犯罪身份如何被社会建构。贝克尔的越轨者、莱默特关于初级越轨与次级越轨的区分，以及“越轨放大”概念都是核心内容。快速记忆：初级越轨 = 未被注意或被原谅；次级越轨 = 被贴上标签并被内化，从而走向犯罪生涯。
5. Family Structures & Household Diversity | 家庭结构与户型的多样性
The nuclear family (two generations, married parents and their children) is often contrasted with the extended family (three or more generations co-residing or closely linked). The Rapoports identify five types of family diversity: organisational, cultural, social class, life-course, and cohort. Use the mnemonic 'O-CLAS-C': Organisational, Cultural, Life-course, Age (cohort), Social class.
核心家庭（两代人，已婚父母及子女）常与扩展家庭（三代或更多代同住或紧密联系）形成对比。拉波波特夫妇识别出五种家庭多样性：组织多样、文化多样、社会阶级多样、生命历程多样和同期群多样。记忆法：“O-CLAS-C”——组织、文化、生命历程、同期群（年龄）、社会阶级。
Conjugal roles refer to the domestic division of labour between partners. Bott distinguishes segregated conjugal roles (separate tasks, leisure) from joint conjugal roles (shared tasks, leisure). The symmetrical family (Young & Willmott) represents a trend towards greater equality, though feminists critique the persistence of the dual burden and triple shift faced by women.
婚姻角色指伴侣间的家庭分工。博特区分了隔离的婚姻角色（任务、休闲分开）和联合的婚姻角色（任务、休闲共享）。对称家庭（杨与威尔莫特）代表了趋向更大平等的趋势，但女性主义者批评女性仍面临双重负担和三重轮班。
Demographic changes have led to increasing cohabitation, lone-parent households, and reconstituted families. Remember 'C-L-R': Cohabitation, Lone-parent, Reconstituted. The personal life perspective (Smart) suggests that relationships are based on connectedness, memory, and biography rather than simply structural forms.
人口变迁导致同居、单亲家庭和重组家庭日益增多。记住“C-L-R”：同居、单亲、重组。个人生活视角（斯马特）认为，关系建立在联结、记忆和人生经历的基础上，而不只是结构形式。
6. Research Methods & Methodological Issues | 研究方法与方法论议题
ods, understanding subjective meaning, and in-depth exploration. To differentiate: Positivism = Patterns, Predictions; Interpretivism = Interpretations, Individuals' meanings. Triangulation combines methods to enhance validity and reliability.
实证主义偏好定量方法、客观测量及因果规律的探求。解释主义注重定性方法、主观意义的理解与深入探索。区分记忆：“实证主义”着眼模式与预测；“解释主义”关注阐释与个体意义。三角交叉法结合多种方法以提高效度和信度。
Key sampling techniques include random, stratified, snowball, and opportunity sampling. A simple table can help:
| Technique | Quick recall |
| Random | Everyone has equal chance – like drawing names from a hat. |
| Stratified | Divide population into strata, then sample proportionally. |
| Snowball | One contact leads to the next – a rolling snowball. |
| Opportunity | People who are available and willing – convenience. |
主要抽样技术包括随机、分层、滚雪球和机会抽样。简单表格有助于记忆。
s indicates how well the sample reflects the target population. A handy triplet: Validity = Truth, Reliability = Repetition, Representativeness = Reflection. Ethical considerations – confidentiality, informed consent, protection from harm – are examined in every SQA paper.
效度指方法是否测量了其声称要测量的内容；信度关乎一致性与可复制性。代表性反映样本多大程度上代表目标总体。三词记忆法：效度就是真，信度就是反复，代表性就是反照。伦理考量——保密、知情同意、免受伤害——在每份 SQA 试卷中都会考查。
7. Globalisation & Social Change | 全球化与社会变迁
Globalisation describes the increasing interconnectedness of economies, cultures, and political systems across national borders. Held's typology distinguishes hyperglobalists, sceptics, and transformationalists. Link each viewpoint to a quick image: hyperglobalists see a borderless world; sceptics say nations still matter; transformationalists see a reshaping, not an end, of sovereignty.
全球化描述的是各国经济、文化与政治体系日益紧密的相互联系。赫尔德的分类将观点区分为超全球主义者、怀疑主义者和变革主义者。可用形象联想：超全球主义者看到无国界世界；怀疑主义者说国家依然重要；变革主义者认为主权在被重塑，而非终结。
McLuhan's concept of the 'global village' captures the way media and technology shrink distances and create shared experiences. Cultural hybridisation refers to the blending of cultural elements creating new forms, while Ritzer's 'McDonaldization' highlights the rationalisation and standardisation of social life. Use 'H' for hybridisation mixing cultures, 'M' for McDonaldization standardising practices.
麦克卢汉的“地球村”概念描绘了媒体与技术如何缩短距离并创造共同体验。文化杂交指文化元素混合形成新形式，而里茨尔的“麦当劳化”则凸显社会生活的理性化与标准化。用字母联想：“H”代表杂交混合文化，“M”代表麦当劳化标准化实践。
8. Power, Politics & the State | 权力、政治与国家
Power, in Weberian terms, is the ability to impose one's will on others, even against resistance. Weber identified three types of authority: traditional, charismatic, and legal-rational. Mnemonic: T-C-L – Traditional (custom), Charismatic (personal magnetism), Legal-rational (rules and laws).
在韦伯看来，权力是将自己的意志强加于他人的能力，即使遇到反抗。韦伯识别出三种权威类型：传统型、魅力型和法理型。记忆法：T-C-L——传统型（习俗）、魅力型（个人魅力）、法理型（规则与法律）。
ohesive ruling group dominates. A simple cue: Pluralism = many groups; Elite = few at the top. The state is the set of institutions with the legitimate monopoly of violence, according to Weber.
多元主义认为权力分散于众多相互竞争的利益集团之间，而精英理论（帕累托、莫斯卡、米尔斯）则主张一小群内聚的统治集团占据主导。简单提示：多元主义就是众多群体；精英理论就是少数顶层。国家，按韦伯的经典定义，是拥有合法暴力垄断的一套制度。
9. Socialisation, Culture & Identity | 社会化、文化与认同
Socialisation is the lifelong process through which individuals learn the norms, values, and roles of their society. Primary socialisation occurs within the family during early childhood; secondary socialisation takes place through institutions like schools, peer groups, and the media. Think 'P' for primary and parents; 'S' for secondary and school.
社会化是个体终其一生学习所在社会规范、价值观与角色的过程。初级社会化发生在家庭中，主要在幼儿期；次级社会化则通过学校、同伴群体和媒体等机构进行。联想记忆：“P”代表初级和父母；“S”代表次级和学校。
lture; countercultures actively reject mainstream norms. For quick recall: Subculture = subset; Counterculture = contrary. Norms are unwritten rules; values are abstract standards of what is right and desirable.
文化包含共享的信仰、习俗、语言和器物。亚文化拥有独特的规范与价值观，但存在于更广大的文化中；反文化则积极排斥主流规范。速记：亚文化就是子集；反文化就是对立。规范是不成文的规则；价值观是关于何为正确、可取的抽象标准。
10. Sociological Classics & Contemporary Applications | 社会学经典与当代应用
Durkheim's study of suicide demonstrated how even the most personal act is shaped by social forces. He identified four types: egoistic, altruistic, anomic, and fatalistic, based on integration and regulation. Create axes: integration (high vs low) and regulation (high vs low) to map each type.
涂尔干关于自杀的研究展示了即便是最个人化的行为也由社会力量塑造。他基于整合与规制两个维度区分了四种类型：利己型、利他型、失范型和宿命型。可画坐标轴：整合（高与低）和规制（高与低），即可标出每种类型。
Weber's Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism linked Calvinist beliefs to the rise of modern capitalism. The concept of elective affinity helps explain this connection – certain religious ideas 'fit' with capitalist values of hard work, discipline, and reinvestment. To memorise: 'Weber's Work ethic Worked for capitalism'.
韦伯的《新教伦理与资本主义精神》将加尔文主义信仰与现代资本主义的兴起联系起来。选择性亲和概念有助于解释这种联系——某些宗教观念与资本主义价值观（勤奋、纪律、再投资）“适配”。可这样记忆：“韦伯的工作伦理为资本主义效力”。
11. Revision Strategies & Exam Tips | 复习策略与考试技巧
Create flash cards with the term on one side and a concise definition plus a relevant sociologist on the other. Use colour coding for theoretical perspectives: green for functionalism, red for Marxism, purple for feminism, blue for interactionism. This builds visual memory and speeds up recall during timed essays.
制作抽认卡，一面写术语，另一面写简明定义加上相关社会学家。用颜色编码区分理论视角：功能主义用绿色，马克思主义用红色，女性主义用紫色，互动论用蓝色。这能建立视觉记忆，在限时论述中加快回忆速度。
Practice defining terms in two sentences: a 'what it is' sentence and a 'why it matters' sentence. For example, 'Anomie is a state of normlessness. It helps explain increased suicide rates during periods of rapid economic change.' This mirrors SQA mark scheme expectations and embeds analytical depth.
练习用两句话给术语下定义：一句说明“是什么”，一句说明“为何重要”。例如，“失范是一种规范缺失状态。它有助于解释经济快速变化时期自杀率上升的原因。”这符合 SQA 评分方案的要求，并嵌入分析深度。
12. Quick-Fire Glossary Drill | 词汇速查练习
e apparatus → Althusser, moral panic → Cohen, risk society → Beck, habitus → Bourdieu, gender performativity → Butler, liquid modernity → Bauman. Chunk these into manageable sets of five.
定期用这些常考配对进行自测，说出定义和理论家：价值共识→帕森斯，意识形态国家机器→阿尔都塞，道德恐慌→科恩，风险社会→贝克，惯习→布迪厄，性别操演→巴特勒，液态现代性→鲍曼。将这些术语分成每组五个，便于记忆。
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