📚 SQA Biology Year 13: Vocabulary & Terminology Quick Memorisation Guide | SQA 生物 Year 13：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering the technical vocabulary of Advanced Higher Biology is essential for success in SQA examinations. This guide breaks down key terms into manageable groups, provides clear definitions, and offers memorable word roots or associations to help you retain them quickly.
掌握 Advanced Higher 生物学的专业词汇是 SQA 考试成功的关键。本指南将关键术语分成易于管理的组别，提供清晰的定义，并给出易记的词根或联想，帮助你快速记住它们。
1. Cell Ultrastructure | 细胞超微结构
These terms underpin your understanding of eukaryotic cell organisation. Focus on the unique structural features that link directly to each organelle's function.
这些术语是理解真核细胞组织的基础。重点关注与每种细胞器功能直接相关的独特结构特征。
Nucleus – Surrounded by a double membrane (nuclear envelope) with nuclear pores; contains chromatin and the nucleolus where rRNA is synthesised. The prefix 'karyo-' means kernel or nut, reflecting its central role.
细胞核 – 由带有核孔的双层膜（核被膜）包围；内含染色质和合成rRNA的核仁。前缀'karyo-'意为核或坚果，反映了它的核心作用。
Mitochondrion (pl. mitochondria) – bic respiration; inner membrane folded into cristae to increase surface area. Think of the 'mighty' energy factory and recall 'mitos' = thread, 'chondrion' = granule.
线粒体 – 有氧呼吸的场所；内膜折叠成嵴以增大表面积。联想'强大的'能量工厂，并记住'mitos' = 线，'chondrion' = 颗粒。
Rough endoplasmic reticulum – Network of flattened sacs studded with ribosomes; modifies and transports proteins. 'Endo-' means within, 'plasmic' refers to cytoplasm, and 'reticulum' means little net.
粗面内质网 – 布满核糖体的扁平囊状网络；修饰和运输蛋白质。'Endo-'意为内，'plasmic'指细胞质，'reticulum'意为小网。
Golgi apparatus – Stack of cisternae that sorts, packages and modifies proteins and lipids for secretion. Picture a post office: 'Golgi' sorts and labels before dispatching vesicles.
高尔基体 – 扁平的 cisternae 堆叠结构，负责分类、包装与修饰待分泌的蛋白质和脂质。想象一个邮局：'Golgi'在派出囊泡前进行分类和贴标签。
2. Membrane Transport | 膜运输
Cell membranes are fluid mosaics of phospholipids and proteins. Understanding the vocabulary of transport mechanisms is vital for explaining how cells interact with their environment.
细胞膜是由磷脂和蛋白质构成的流动镶嵌体。理解运输机制的词汇对于解释细胞如何与环境互动至关重要。
Phospholipid bilayer – The fundamental structure of membranes, with hydrophilic phosphate heads facing outward and hydrophobic fatty acid tails inward. 'Phospho-' indicates phosphate, 'lipid' means fat.
磷脂双分子层 – 膜的基本结构，亲水的磷酸头朝外，疏水的脂肪酸尾部朝内。'Phospho-'表示磷酸，'lipid'意为脂肪。
Diffusion – Net movement of molecules from a region of high concentration to low concentration, down a concentration gradient, without energy. 'Dif-' means apart, 'fusus' means poured — spreading out.
扩散 – 分子顺着浓度梯度从高浓度区域向低浓度区域的净运动，不消耗能量。'Dif-'意为分开，'fusus'意为倾倒——散开。
Active transport – Movement of ions or molecules against a concentration gradient, requiring ATP and carrier proteins. Key memory: 'active' means energy-demanding, like actively climbing a hill.
主动运输 – 离子或分子逆浓度梯度移动，需要ATP和载体蛋白。核心记忆：'active'表示需要能量，就像费力爬坡。
Endocytosis / Exocytosis – Bulk transport into (endo-) and out of (exo-) the cell via vesicles. 'Cyto' = cell, 'osis' = process. Endo- remembers 'enter', exo- remembers 'exit'.
胞吞/胞吐 – 通过囊泡将大块物质运入（内吞）和运出（外吐）细胞。'Cyto' = 细胞，'osis' = 过程。Endo-记作'进入'，exo-记作'退出'。
3. Biomolecules | 生物分子
Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids are the four major classes. Recognise the monomers and polymers, and learn the bond types that join them.
碳水化合物、脂质、蛋白质和核酸是四大类。识别单体和多聚体，并学习连接它们的化学键类型。
Monosaccharide – Simple sugar, e.g. glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆). 'Mono-' = one, 'saccharide' = sugar. Glucose is the primary fuel for respiration.
单糖 – 简单糖，例如葡萄糖(C₆H₁₂O₆)。'Mono-' = 一，'saccharide' = 糖。葡萄糖是呼吸作用的主要燃料。
Triglyceride – Lipid formed from one glycerol and three fatty acids via ester bonds. 'Tri-' = three, 'glyceride' from glycerol. Remember: three tails store more energy.
甘油三酯 – 由一个甘油和三个脂肪酸通过酯键形成的脂质。'Tri-' = 三，'glyceride'源自甘油。记住：三条尾巴储存更多能量。
Peptide bond – The C–N covalent bond formed between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another during protein synthesis. 'Peptide' from the Greek 'peptos' (digested).
肽键 – 在蛋白质合成中，一个氨基酸的羧基与另一个氨基酸的氨基之间形成的C–N共价键。'肽'源自希腊语'peptos'（被消化的）。
Nucleotide – Monomer of nucleic acids, consisting of a phosphate group, a pentose sugar and a nitrogenous base. 'Nucleo-' refers to the nucleus, where DNA is housed.
核苷酸 – 核酸的单体，由一个磷酸基团、一个五碳糖和一个含氮碱基组成。'Nucleo-'指细胞核，即DNA的所在。
4. Enzymes | 酶
Enzymes are biological catalysts. Key terms describe their specificity, kinetics and regulation. Pay attention to active site geometry and inhibition terminology.
酶是生物催化剂。关键术语描述了它们的特异性、动力学和调控。关注活性位点几何形状和抑制术语。
Active site – The specific region on an enzyme where the substrate binds and catalysis occurs. Think 'lock and key': the active site is the lock, the substrate is the key.
活性位点 – 酶上底物结合并发生催化的特定区域。联想'锁与钥匙'：活性位点是锁，底物是钥匙。
Competitive inhibitor – A molecule that resembles the substrate and competes for the active site, reducing enzyme activity. 'Competitive' because it vies for the same spot.
竞争性抑制剂 – 与底物相似并竞争活性位点的分子，降低酶活性。'竞争性'是因为它争夺同一位置。
Non-competitive inhibitor – Binds to an allosteric site (not the active site), changing enzyme shape so the substrate cannot bind. 'Non-competitive' means it does not compete with substrate.
非竞争性抑制剂 – 与别构位点（非活性位点）结合，改变酶的形状使底物无法结合。'非竞争性'表示它不与底物竞争。
Vmax (Maximum rate) – maximum rate of an enzyme-catalysed reaction when the enzyme is saturated with substrate. 'V' = velocity, 'max' = maximum; reflects enzyme turnover.
Vmax（最大速率） – 酶被底物饱和时酶催化反应的最大速率。'V' = 速度，'max' = 最大；反映酶周转数。
5. Cellular Respiration | 细胞呼吸
Respiration breaks down glucose to produce ATP. The four stages each have a distinct location and carbon footprint. Master the terms for the intermediate compounds and cycles.
呼吸作用分解葡萄糖产生ATP。四个阶段各有独特的场所和碳足迹。掌握中间化合物和循环的术语。
Glycolysis – nto two pyruvate (3C) molecules in the cytoplasm, yielding a net gain of 2 ATP and 2 NADH. 'Glyco-' = sugar, 'lysis' = splitting.
糖酵解 – 在细胞质中将葡萄糖（6C）分解为两个丙酮酸（3C）分子的过程，净产生2 ATP和2 NADH。'Glyco-' = 糖，'lysis' = 分解。
Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs cycle) – Series of reactions in the mitochondrial matrix where acetyl CoA is oxidised, generating CO₂, NADH, FADH₂ and ATP/GTP. 'Citric' because citrate is the first product.
柠檬酸循环（克雷布斯循环） – 在线粒体基质中乙酰CoA被氧化的一系列反应，产生CO₂、NADH、FADH₂和ATP/GTP。'柠檬酸'因第一个产物是柠檬酸得名。
Electron transport chain – Located on the inner mitochondrial membrane; electrons from NADH and FADH₂ pass through carriers, pumping protons to create a gradient for ATP synthase.
电子传递链 – 位于线粒体内膜上；来自NADH和FADH₂的电子通过载体传递，泵出质子以建立用于ATP合酶的梯度。
Substrate-level phosphorylation – Direct production of ATP from ADP and a phosphate group during glycolysis and the Krebs cycle, without using ATP synthase. 'Substrate-level' means a substrate donates phosphate.
底物水平磷酸化 – 在糖酵解和柠檬酸循环中，不经过ATP合酶，直接由ADP和磷酸基团生成ATP。'底物水平'表示底物直接提供磷酸基团。
6. Photosynthesis | 光合作用
Photosynthesis converts light energy into chemical energy in the form of glucose. The light-dependent and light-independent stages each have an iconic vocabulary.
光合作用将光能转化为葡萄糖形式的化学能。光依赖和光非依赖阶段各自拥有标志性词汇。
Chloroplast – e photosynthesis occurs, containing thylakoid membranes stacked into grana and the stroma. 'Chloro-' = green, 'plast' = formed body.
叶绿体 – 光合作用的细胞器，含有堆叠成基粒的类囊体膜和基质。'Chloro-' = 绿，'plast' = 成形体。
Chlorophyll a – photosynthetic pigment located in the reaction centre; absorbs mainly red and blue light. 'Chloros' = green, 'phyll' = leaf.
叶绿素a – 位于反应中心的主要光合色素，主要吸收红光和蓝光。'Chloros' = 绿，'phyll' = 叶。
Photolysis – lecules by light during the light-dependent reaction, releasing electrons, protons and O₂. 'Photo-' = light, 'lysis' = splitting.
光解 – 在光依赖反应中水分子被光分解，释放出电子、质子和氧气。'Photo-' = 光，'lysis' = 分解。
Calvin cycle – The light-independent stage in the stroma where CO₂ is fixed by RuBisCO to produce GP, then reduced to triose phosphate using ATP and NADPH. Named after Melvin Calvin.
卡尔文循环 – 在基质中进行的非光依赖阶段，CO₂被RuBisCO固定产生GP，随后利用ATP和NADPH还原为磷酸丙糖。以梅尔文·卡尔文命名。
7. DNA and Protein Synthesis | DNA与蛋白质合成
Genetic information flows from DNA to RNA to protein. The terminology of replication, transcription and translation can be decoded by learning common prefixes and suffixes.
遗传信息从DNA流向RNA再流向蛋白质。学习常见前缀和后缀可以解码复制、转录与翻译的术语。
DNA polymerase – Enzyme that synthesises new DNA strands by adding nucleotides in the 5' → 3' direction during replication. 'Poly-' = many, 'mer' = part; it makes a polymer.
DNA聚合酶 – 在复制过程中沿5'→3'方向添加核苷酸合成新DNA链的酶。'Poly-' = 多，'mer' = 部分；它制造多聚体。
Transcription – Process where a gene's DNA sequence is copied into mRNA by RNA polymerase. 'Trans-' = across, 'script' = write; rewriting the genetic message.
转录 – 基因的DNA序列由RNA聚合酶拷贝为mRNA的过程。'Trans-' = 跨越，'script' = 写；重写遗传信息。
Codon – A sequence of three nucleotide bases on mRNA that codes for a specific amino acid. Think 'code' with 'on' — it is the code on mRNA.
密码子 – mRNA上编码特定氨基酸的三个核苷酸碱基序列。联想'code'上的'on'——它是mRNA上的密码。
Anticodon – Triplet of bases on tRNA complementary to the mRNA codon. 'Anti-' means opposite; it binds by complementary base pairing.
反密码子 – tRNA上与mRNA密码子互补的三碱基序列。'Anti-'意为相反；通过互补碱基配对结合。
8. Genetics and Inheritance | 遗传与遗传
Mendelian genetics introduces alleles, dominance and crosses. Dihybrid crosses and linked genes require precise use of the terminology of segregation and independent assortment.
孟德尔遗传学引入了等位基因、显性和杂交。双因子杂交和连锁基因需要准确使用分离和自由组合的术语。
Allele – An alternative form of a gene occupying the same locus on homologous chromosomes. From Greek 'allelon' (of one another). Alleles arise by mutation.
等位基因 – 占据同源染色体相同基因座的一种基因的替代形式。源自希腊语'allelon'（彼此）。等位基因由突变产生。
Homozygous / Heterozygous – Having two identical (homo-) or two different (hetero-) alleles for a particular gene. 'Zygous' refers to the zygote. Homo- = same, hetero- = different.
纯合/杂合 – 对某一特定基因具有两个相同（纯合）或两个不同（杂合）等位基因。'Zygous'指合子。Homo- = 同，hetero- = 异。
Genotype – genetic constitution of an organism, as distinct from its physical appearance (phenotype). 'Geno-' = gene, 'type' = form.
基因型 – 生物体的遗传构成，区别于其物理外观（表型）。'Geno-' = 基因，'type' = 类型。
Dihybrid cross – A mating experiment between two organisms that are identically hybrid for two traits. 'Di-' = two, 'hybrid' = mixed; it tracks two characteristics.
双因子杂交 – 两个在两个性状上具有相同杂合性的生物之间的交配实验。'Di-' = 二，'hybrid' = 混合；它追踪两个性状。
9. Evolution and Speciation | 进化与物种形成
Darwinian evolution relies on variation and natural selection. Speciation terms describe the mechanisms by which new species arise, often involving isolation.
达尔文进化论依赖于变异和自然选择。物种形成术语描述了新物种产生的机制，通常涉及隔离。
Natural selection – Differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in phenotype. 'Selection' implies non-random filtering of advantageous traits.
自然选择 – 由于表型差异而导致个体存活和繁殖的差异。'选择'意味着对有利性状的非随机筛选。
Gene pool – All the alleles of every gene in a population at a given time. Think of it as a 'pool' of genetic variation from which selection can draw.
基因库 – 在特定时间内一个群体中所有基因的全部等位基因。可以把它看作一个基因变异的'池'，供选择从中提取。
Allopatric speciation – Formation of new species due to geographical isolation. 'Allo-' = other, 'patric' = fatherland; different homelands prevent gene flow.
异域物种形成 – 由于地理隔离而形成新物种。'Allo-' = 其他，'patric' = 祖国；不同的故乡阻止了基因流动。
Sympatric speciation – ciation within the same geographical area, often due to reproductive isolation mechanisms. 'Sym-' = together, 'patric' = homeland; same homeland, new species.
同域物种形成 – 在同一地理区域内发生的物种形成，通常由生殖隔离机制引起。'Sym-' = 共同，'patric' = 家园；同一家园，新物种。
10. Immunology | 免疫学
Immunology is rich with cellular and molecular terms. Focus on the difference between innate and adaptive responses, and the roles of lymphocytes.
免疫学含有丰富的细胞和分子术语。重点关注先天免疫与适应性免疫的区别，以及淋巴细胞的作用。
Antigen – hat triggers an immune response by binding to specific antibodies or lymphocyte receptors. 'Anti-' = against, 'gen' = producer; antibody generator.
抗原 – 一种能触发免疫应答、与特定抗体或淋巴细胞受体结合的分子（常为外来分子）。'Anti-' = 对抗，'gen' = 产生者；抗体产生者。
Antibody – Y-shaped protein produced by B-cells that specifically binds to an antigen. Also known as immunoglobulin. 'Anti-' + 'body'; the body's defender.
抗体 – 由B细胞产生的Y形蛋白质，能特异性结合抗原。又称免疫球蛋白。'Anti-' + 'body'；身体的防御者。
Memory B-cell – Long-lived lymphocyte that 'remembers' a specific antigen and enables a faster secondary response. 'Memory' is the key to vaccination success.
记忆B细胞 – 能'记住'特定抗原的长寿淋巴细胞，实现更快的二次应答。'记忆'是疫苗接种成功的关键。
Phagocytosis – Process by which phagocytes (e.g. macrophages) engulf and digest pathogens. 'Phago-' = eating, 'cyto' = cell, 'osis' = process; cell eating.
吞噬作用 – 吞噬细胞（如巨噬细胞）吞噬并消化病原体的过程。'Phago-' = 吃，'cyto' = 细胞，'osis' = 过程；细胞进食。
11. Nervous System | 神经系统
The nervous system uses electrical impulses and chemical synapses. The key terms describe the structure of neurones and the propagation of action potentials.
神经系统使用电冲动和化学突触。关键术语描述了神经元的结构和动作电位的传播。
Neurone – cialised cell that transmits nerve impulses. Consists of cell body, dendrites and an axon. 'Neuro-' = nerve.
神经元 – 传递神经冲动的特化细胞。由细胞体、树突和轴突组成。'Neuro-' = 神经。
Myelin sheath – Schwann cells around an axon that speeds up impulse transmission via saltatory conduction. 'Myelo-' = marrow or sheath.
髓鞘 – 轴突周围由施万细胞形成的绝缘层，通过跳跃传导加速冲动传递。'Myelo-' = 髓或鞘。
Synapse – e junction between two neurones where neurotransmitters are released to transmit a signal. 'Syn-' = together, 'haptein' = to clasp; linking point.
突触 – 两个神经元之间的连接处，神经递质在此释放以传递信号。'Syn-' = 共同，'haptein' = 扣住；连接点。
Depolarisation – potential from negative to positive during an action potential due to influx of Na⁺ ions. 'De-' = removal of polarisation.
去极化 – 动作电位期间，因Na⁺内流导致膜电位由负变正的变化。'De-' = 去除极化。
12. Ecology | 生态学
Ecology terms define interactions between organisms and their environment. In SQA papers, key vocabulary around populations, communities and energy flow is often tested.
生态学术语定义了生物与其环境之间的相互作用。在SQA考试中，围绕种群、群落和能量流动的关键词汇经常被考查。
Ecosystem – A community of interacting organisms and their physical environment. 'Eco-' = house, 'system' = organised whole; the household of nature.
生态系统 – 相互作用的生物群落与其物理环境。'Eco-' = 家，'system' = 有组织的整体；自然的家园。
Niche – The role an organism plays in its ecosystem, including its habitat, resource use and interactions. A species' 'profession', while its habitat is its 'address'.
生态位 – 生物在其生态系统中扮演的角色，包括栖息地、资源利用和相互作用。一个物种的'职业'，而其栖息地是它的'地址'。
Primary succession – at has never previously supported a community, starting with pioneer species on bare rock. 'Primary' = first.
原生演替 – 在从未有过群落支撑的区域进行定殖，从裸露岩石上的先锋物种开始。'Primary' = 最初的。
Gross primary productivity (GPP) – The total energy fixed by photosynthesis in an ecosystem per unit area per unit time. 'Gross' means total, before plant respiration is subtracted.
总初级生产力 (GPP) – 生态系统中单位面积单位时间通过光合作用固定的总能量。'总'意为减去植物呼吸前的全部。
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