📚 SQA Psychology Year 12: Quick Guide to Key Terms & Vocabulary | SQA 心理学 Year 12：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering the precise vocabulary of psychology is half the battle in SQA Higher Psychology. Without a clear grasp of terms like 'operationalisation', 'cognitive dissonance', or 'attachment type', even the best arguments can lose marks. This guide transforms complex terminology into memorable, exam-ready chunks – with a systematic pairing of English definitions and Chinese explanations, so concepts stick in both languages. It covers research methods, cognitive, social, developmental, and biological topics, aligning with the SQA specification for Year 12.
在 SQA Higher 心理学中，精准掌握术语词汇是成功的一半。如果对“操作化”、“认知失调”或“依恋类型”等术语理解不清，再好的论述也会丢分。本指南将复杂的术语转化为易记、应试的模块——系统性地配对英文定义和中文解释，让概念以双语形式牢牢记在脑中。内容涵盖研究方法、认知、社会、发展及生理等主题，贴合 SQA Year 12 考纲。
1. Research Methods Core Vocabulary | 研究方法核心术语
Operationalisation means defining a variable in measurable, concrete terms so it can be tested empirically. Instead of saying 'memory', you might use 'number of words recalled from a list of 20'.
操作化指的是用可测量、具体的词语定义变量，以便进行实证检验。例如，不说“记忆”，而用“从20个单词列表中回忆出的单词数量”。
Confounding variable is an uncontrolled factor that changes systematically with the independent variable (IV), making it impossible to tell whether the IV or the confound caused the effect on the dependent variable (DV).
混淆变量是一种未控制的因素，它与自变量（IV）系统地共同变化，导致无法判断是IV还是混淆变量对因变量（DV）产生了影响。
Counterbalancing is a technique used in repeated measures designs to control order effects; half the participants experience conditions in one order (A then B), and half in the reverse order (B then A).
平衡法是在重复测量设计中用于控制顺序效应的技术；一半被试按 A→B 顺序进行，另一半按 B→A 顺序进行。
A pilot study is a small-scale trial run conducted before the main investigation to check procedures, materials, and identify potential problems without wasting full resources.
先导研究是在正式研究前进行的小规模预试，用于检查程序和材料，发现潜在问题，从而避免浪费全部资源。
Ethical considerations include informed consent, right to withdraw, protection from harm, confidentiality, and debriefing. The BPS code underpins all SQA discussions of ethics.
伦理考量包括知情同意、随时退出权、免受伤害、保密以及事后解释。英国心理学会（BPS）准则始终是 SQA 伦理讨论的基础。
2. Experimental Design Terms | 实验设计术语
Independent groups design allocates different participants to each condition of the IV, avoiding order effects but risking participant variables acting as confounds.
独立组设计将不同被试分配到各自变量的每个条件，避免了顺序效应，但有被试变量成为混淆因素的风险。
Repeated measures design uses the same participants in all conditions, which controls participant variables but introduces order effects like fatigue or practice.
重复测量设计在所有条件中使用同一批被试，这控制了被试变量，但引入了疲劳或练习等顺序效应。
Matched pairs design pairs participants on key traits (e.g., IQ, age) and then splits each pair across conditions, aiming to reduce participant variables without order effects, though matching is never perfect.
匹配配对设计会在关键特质（如智商、年龄）上将被试配对，然后将每对成员分到不同条件，旨在既减少被试变量又避免顺序效应，不过匹配难达完美。
3. Data Types & Descriptive Statistics | 数据类型与描述统计
Nominal data are categories with no numerical order, like eye colour or a yes/no response. The only measure of central tendency you can use is the mode.
称名数据是无数值顺序的类别，如眼睛颜色或是/否回答。唯一可用的集中趋势量数是众数。
Ordinal data can be ranked (e.g., ratings 1–5), but intervals between ranks may not be equal. The median is the appropriate average; the interquartile range is used for dispersion alongside the median.
顺序数据可以排序（如1–5评分），但排序间距未必相等。中位数是适当的平均数；四分位距与中位数配合使用来衡量离散程度。
Interval/ratio data have equal intervals and a true zero (ratio), like reaction time in milliseconds. The mean and standard deviation are the most powerful descriptive statistics for such data.
等距/等比数据拥有等距间隔，且等比数据存在绝对零点，如反应时（毫秒）。对此类数据，平均数和标准差是最有力的描述统计。
A scattergraph shows the relationship between two co-variables. A positive correlation means as one rises, the other tends to rise; a negative correlation means as one rises, the other tends to fall.
散点图展示两个协变量之间的关系。正相关意味着一方升高，另一方也升高；负相关意味着一方升高，另一方则下降。
4. Inferential Statistics & Significance | 推断统计与显著性
ers aim to reject the null hypothesis at a chosen significance level (p ≤ 0.05 is common).
零假设声称没有效应或没有差异；备择（或实验）假设预测存在效应。研究者旨在选定的显著性水平（通常 p ≤ 0.05）上拒绝零假设。
Type I error is a false positive – rejecting a true null hypothesis. Type II error is a false negative – failing to reject a false null hypothesis.
I 类错误是假阳性——拒绝了正确的零假设。II 类错误是假阴性——未能拒绝错误的零假设。
A Wilcoxon test is for repeated measures or matched pairs with ordinal data; a Mann-Whitney test is for independent groups with ordinal data. Chi-square is for nominal data (frequencies). Spearman's rho is used for correlations with ordinal data.
Wilcoxon 检验适用于顺序数据的重复测量或匹配配对设计；Mann-Whitney 检验适用于顺序数据的独立组设计。卡方检验适用于称名数据（频数）。Spearman 等级相关系数用于顺序数据的相关分析。
5. Cognitive Psychology: Memory Models | 认知心理学：记忆模型
The Multi-Store Model (Atkinson & Shiffrin) describes three unitary stores: sensory register, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM). Information moves via attention and rehearsal; forgetting happens through decay or displacement.
多存储模型（Atkinson & Shiffrin）描述三个单一存储库：感觉登记、短时记忆（STM）和长时记忆（LTM）。信息通过注意和复述传递；遗忘由消退或替代引起。
Working memory (Baddeley & Hitch) replaces the idea of a single STM with a central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and episodic buffer. It emphasises active processing, not just storage.
工作记忆（Baddeley & Hitch）用中央执行系统、语音回路、视空间画板和情景缓冲器取代了单一短时记忆的概念。它强调主动加工，而不仅仅是存储。
Semantic memory is our store of factual knowledge (e.g., Paris is the capital of France), while episodic memory is memory for personally experienced events. Both are types of declarative (explicit) LTM according to Tulving.
语义记忆是我们对事实知识的存储（如巴黎是法国首都），而情景记忆是对个人经历过的事件的记忆。根据 Tulving 的观点，两者都属于陈述性（外显）长时记忆。
6. Cognitive Psychology: Memory Processes | 认知心理学：记忆加工
Encoding specificity principle (Tulving) says recall is better when the cues present at retrieval match those present at encoding. Context-dependent forgetting occurs when there is a mismatch between learning and test environments.
编码特异性原则（Tulving）认为，当提取时的线索与编码时一致时，回忆效果更好。当学习环境与测试环境不匹配时，就会发生情境依赖性遗忘。
Leading questions can distort eyewitness testimony. Loftus & Palmer showed participants a car crash film; the verb 'smashed' produced higher speed estimates than 'contacted'. This relates to the misinformation effect, where post-event information alters memory.
诱导性问题会扭曲目击者证词。Loftus & Palmer 让被试观看车祸影片，使用动词“撞碎”比“接触”产生更高的车速估计。这与误导信息效应有关，即事后信息会改变记忆。
Cognitive interview is a technique to improve eyewitness recall, using report everything, context reinstatement, reverse order recall, and change perspective. It aims to increase accurate cues and reduce leading questions.
认知访谈是提高目击者回忆的技术，运用报告一切、情境复置、反向回忆和视角改变。其目的是增加准确线索并减少诱导性问题。
7. Social Psychology: Conformity & Obedience | 社会心理学：从众与服从
Conformity is a change in behaviour or belief due to real or imagined group pressure. Asch's line studies demonstrated normative social influence (wanting to fit in) and informational social influence (believing the group has correct information).
从众是因真实或想象中的团体压力而导致的行为或信念改变。Asch 的线段实验证明了两类影响：规范社会影响（想合群）和信息社会影响（认为团体拥有正确信息）。
Obedience is following a direct order from an authority figure. Milgram's electric shock experiment revealed high obedience rates even when the learner cried out in pain, highlighting situational factors like proximity, legitimacy, and role models.
服从即遵从权威人物的直接命令。Milgram 的电击实验显示，即使学习者痛苦尖叫，服从率仍然很高，突显了距离、权威合法性和榜样等情境因素。
Agentic state theory (Milgram) suggests people shift from an autonomous state to an agentic state when they see themselves as acting on behalf of an authority, thus feeling less responsible. Binding factors keep them in this state.
代理人状态理论（Milgram）认为，当人们视自己为代表权威行事时，会从自主状态转变为代理人状态，从而责任感降低。约束因素让他们维持这一状态。
8. Social Psychology: Prejudice & Discrimination | 社会心理学：偏见与歧视
Prejudice is a negative attitude (often with cognitive, affective, and behavioural components) towards a person based on their group membership. Discrimination is the behavioural expression of prejudice.
偏见是基于某人群体身份的负面态度（通常包含认知、情感和行为成分）。歧视是偏见的行为表现。
Realistic Conflict Theory (Sherif) argues that competition for scarce resources causes intergroup hostility, while superordinate goals reduce it. The Robbers Cave experiment supporting this had boys at a summer camp, where tournament competition produced fierce conflict, later eased by tasks requiring cooperation.
现实冲突理论（Sherif）认为，对稀缺资源的竞争引发群体间敌意，而超然目标可以减少敌意。支持此理论的 Robbers Cave 实验在一场夏令营中进行，锦标赛竞争引发了激烈冲突，后来通过需要合作的共同任务得到缓解。
Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & Turner) proposes three stages: social categorisation (us vs them), social identification (adopting group norms), and social comparison (favouring the ingroup). Mere knowledge of group membership can trigger ingroup bias.
社会认同理论（Tajfel & Turner）提出三个阶段：社会分类（我们vs他们）、社会认同（采纳群体规范）和社会比较（偏袒内群体）。仅仅知道群体归属就能引发内群体偏好。
9. Developmental Psychology: Attachment | 发展心理学：依恋
Attachment is a strong, enduring emotional bond between infant and caregiver. Ainsworth's Strange Situation classifies attachment into three types: secure (Type B), insecure-avoidant (Type A), and insecure-resistant (Type C).
依恋是婴儿与照料者之间强烈而持久的情感纽带。Ainsworth 的陌生情境实验将依恋分为三种类型：安全型（B 型）、不安全回避型（A 型）和不安全反抗型（C 型）。
Caregiver sensitivity hypothesis argues that a mother's responsive, warm parenting predicts secure attachment. The internal working model (Bowlby) is a mental template, shaped by early attachment relationships, that influences later relationships and parenting.
照料者敏感性假说认为，母亲的反应迅速、温暖养育可预测安全型依恋。内部工作模型（Bowlby）是一种由早期依恋关系形成的心理模板，会影响日后的人际关系和育儿方式。
Cultural variations in attachment challenge the universality of the Strange Situation classification. E.g., many German infants appeared avoidant due to cultural emphasis on early independence, while Japanese infants rarely showed avoidance, possibly because mother-infant separation is uncommon.
依恋的文化差异对陌生情境分类的普适性提出质疑。例如，许多德国婴儿由于文化强调早期独立而表现为回避型，而日本婴儿极少表现出回避，可能是因为母婴分离不常见。
10. Biological Psychology: Nervous System & Neurons | 生理心理学：神经系统与神经元
The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) connects the CNS to limbs and organs, subdivided into somatic (voluntary) and autonomic (involuntary) systems.
中枢神经系统（CNS）由脑和脊髓组成。外周神经系统（PNS）将中枢神经与四肢和器官相连，细分为躯体（随意）系统和自主（不随意）系统。
A neuron has a soma (cell body), dendrites (receive signals), and an axon (sends signals). The action potential is an all-or-nothing electrical impulse that travels down the axon; myelination speeds up transmission via saltatory conduction.
神经元包含胞体、树突（接收信号）和轴突（发送信号）。动作电位是一种沿轴突传导的全或无电冲动；髓鞘化通过跳跃传导加速传递。
Synaptic transmission occurs when vesicles release neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft. These chemical messengers bind to receptor sites on the postsynaptic neuron, causing either excitation (EPSP) or inhibition (IPSP).
突触传递发生时，囊泡将神经递质释放到突触间隙。这些化学信使与突触后神经元上的受体位点结合，引起兴奋（EPSP）或抑制（IPSP）。
11. Biological Psychology: Brain Regions & Techniques | 生理心理学：脑区与技术
The frontal lobe is crucial for executive functions, problem-solving, and personality. Broca's area (left frontal lobe) governs speech production; damage causes Broca's aphasia (laboured, non-fluent speech).
额叶对执行功能、问题解决和人格至关重要。布罗卡区（左侧额叶）主管言语产出；受损导致布罗卡失语症（费力、不流利的言语）。
Wernicke's area (left temporal lobe) is involved in language comprehension. Damage results in fluent but meaningless speech with poor understanding. The hippocampus (medial temporal lobe) is essential for forming new episodic memories.
韦尼克区（左侧颞叶）涉及语言理解。受损导致言语流利却无意义，理解力差。海马体（内侧颞叶）对形成新情景记忆至关重要。
fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood oxygenation (BOLD signal). It has high spatial resolution but poor temporal resolution. Post-mortem examination allows detailed anatomical study but cannot establish cause-effect relationships in living processes.
功能磁共振成像（fMRI）通过检测血氧水平变化（BOLD 信号）来测量脑活动。它空间分辨率高但时间分辨率差。脑部尸检可进行详细的解剖学研究，但无法确定活体过程中的因果关系。
12. Mnemonic Toolkit for SQA Psychology Terms | SQA 心理学术语记忆工具箱
Create acronyms: for research ethics, remember 'DR CIP' – Deception, Right to withdraw, Consent, Confidentiality, Injury (protection from harm), Privacy. Associate 'M&S' (Marks and Spencer) for the Multi-Store Model – a store you buy from!
编写首字母缩略词：如研究伦理可记“DR CIP”——欺骗、退出权、同意、保密、免受伤害、隐私。用“M&S”（玛莎百货）联想多存储模型（Multi-Store Model）——一个你进去购物的“商店”！
Use visual stories: picture a 'confounding' magician who secretly switches the independent variable while you aren't looking. Imagine 'operationalisation' as turning a fluffy concept into a hard ruler-measurable thing – literally making it operational.
运用视觉故事：想象一个“混淆”魔术师，趁你不注意偷偷把自变量换掉了。想象“操作化”是将一个蓬松的概念变成能用尺子测量的硬物——真的使它变得可“操作”了。
Dual coding pairs a word with a simple sketch: draw a bell curve for 'normal distribution', a Venn diagram for 'overlap' between brain regions, or arrow chains for synaptic transmission. The SQA Multiple Choice and Short Answer sections reward quick, accurate recall; these paired associations will speed retrieval under time pressure.
双重编码为词语配上简图：为“正态分布”画一个钟形曲线，为脑区间“重叠”画韦恩图，为突触传递画箭头链。SQA 的选择题和简答题要求快速准确回忆；这些成对联想将帮助你在时间压力下加速提取。
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