📚 SQA Higher Biology Essential Terminology Fast-Track Guide | SQA高级生物学必备术语速记指南
Adding an extensive scientific vocabulary to your revision toolkit is one of the most effective ways to boost your SQA Higher Biology performance. This guide presents key terms grouped by topic, with bilingual explanations and memory aids so you can move from passive recognition to confident application in exams. Work through it systematically, and you will find that command words, data questions and extended responses all become easier to handle.
在复习工具箱中加入丰富的科学词汇，是提升 SQA 高级生物学成绩最有效的方法之一。本指南按主题整理关键术语，配有双语解释与记忆辅助，帮助你从被动识别走向自信的应用。系统学完本指南后，你会发现指令词、数据分析题和长答题都变得更加得心应手。
1. Mastering Key Prefixes and Suffixes | 掌握关键前缀与后缀
Many biological terms are built from a small set of Greek and Latin roots. Once you learn the most common ones, you can decode unfamiliar words quickly. The prefix 'endo-' means 'inside', so endocytosis is the process of bringing materials into a cell; 'exo-' means 'outside', giving exocytosis. 'Hyper-' indicates 'above normal' (hypertonic – higher solute concentration outside the cell), while 'hypo-' means 'below normal' (hypotonic – lower solute concentration outside).
许多生物学术语由一小部分希腊语和拉丁语词根构成。一旦学会最常见的词根，你就能快速解读生词。前缀 ‘endo-’ 意为‘内部’，因此 endocytosis（内吞作用）是将物质带入细胞的过程；‘exo-’ 表示‘外部’，对应 exocytosis（外排作用）。‘hyper-’ 表示‘高于正常’，如 hypertonic（高渗的–细胞外溶质浓度较高）；‘hypo-’ 表示‘低于正常’，如 hypotonic（低渗的–细胞外溶质浓度较低）。
Other high-yield prefixes include 'glyco-' (sugar, as in glycolysis), 'lipo-' (fat, as in phospholipid), 'mono-' (one, monomer), 'poly-' (many, polymer), and 'semi-/perme-' (partially/fully passable, as in semipermeable membrane). Suffixes are equally powerful: '-ase' almost always signals an enzyme (amylase, polymerase), '-ose' indicates a sugar (glucose, lactose), and '-itis' means inflammation (arthritis, but rarely tested in this context).
其他高频前缀包括 ‘glyco-’（糖，如 glycolysis 糖酵解）、‘lipo-’（脂肪，如 phospholipid 磷脂）、‘mono-’（单，如 monomer 单体）、‘poly-’（多，如 polymer 聚合物），以及 ‘semi-/perme-’（部分/完全可通过的，如 semipermeable membrane 半透膜）。后缀同样有用：‘-ase’ 几乎总是表示酶（amylase 淀粉酶、polymerase 聚合酶），‘-ose’ 表示糖类（glucose 葡萄糖、lactose 乳糖），‘-itis’ 表示炎症（arthritis 关节炎，但此语境下不常考）。
2. Cell Biology Terminology | 细胞生物学术语
The cell membrane is described by the fluid-mosaic model: a phospholipid bilayer with proteins floating like icebergs in a fluid lipid sea. 'Fluid' refers to the lateral movement of lipids and proteins; 'mosaic' describes the patchwork of protein types embedded in the membrane.
细胞膜用流动镶嵌模型（fluid-mosaic model）来描述：磷脂双层中蛋白质像冰山一样漂浮在流动的脂质海洋中。‘流动’指脂质和蛋白质的侧向移动；‘镶嵌’指嵌入膜中的多种蛋白质形成的拼图状结构。
Organelles you must know: nucleus (stores genetic material), mitochondrion (site of aerobic respiration – double membrane with cristae to increase surface area), chloroplast (site of photosynthesis, contains thylakoid membranes stacked into grana), rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER – studded with ribosomes, synthesises proteins for secretion), smooth ER (lipid synthesis), Golgi apparatus (modifies, sorts and packages proteins into vesicles), lysosomes (contain digestive enzymes), ribosomes (protein synthesis) and the large central vacuole in plant cells (storage and turgor pressure).
必须掌握的细胞器：细胞核（储存遗传物质），线粒体（有氧呼吸的场所–双层膜，带嵴以增加表面积），叶绿体（光合作用场所，含类囊体膜堆叠成基粒），粗面内质网（RER–附着核糖体，合成分泌蛋白），滑面内质网（脂质合成），高尔基体（修饰、分类、将蛋白质包装进囊泡），溶酶体（含消化酶），核糖体（蛋白质合成）以及植物细胞的大中央液泡（储存与维持膨压）。
ular DNA and smaller 70S ribosomes; eukaryotes have a nucleus, linear DNA, membrane-bound organelles and larger 80S ribosomes. Remember: S = Svedberg unit, not mass.
原核与真核细胞的关键区别：原核生物（细菌）缺乏真正的细胞核和膜结合的细胞器，具有环状 DNA 和较小的 70S 核糖体；真核生物有细胞核、线状 DNA、膜结合的细胞器和较大的 80S 核糖体。记住：S 是 Svedberg 沉降系数单位，并非质量。
3. Molecular Genetics Jargon | 分子遗传学术语
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a double-stranded helix composed of nucleotides. Each nucleotide contains deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base (adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine). The strands are antiparallel and held together by hydrogen bonds between complementary base pairs: A with T (two hydrogen bonds), C with G (three hydrogen bonds).
DNA（脱氧核糖核酸）是由核苷酸组成的双链螺旋。每个核苷酸含有脱氧核糖、一个磷酸基团和一个含氮碱基（腺嘌呤 A、胸腺嘧啶 T、胞嘧啶 C、鸟嘌呤 G）。两条链反向平行，通过互补碱基对之间的氢键结合在一起：A 与 T（两个氢键），C 与 G（三个氢键）。
RNA (ribonucleic acid) differs by having ribose sugar and uracil instead of thymine. Three types feature heavily: messenger RNA (mRNA) carries the genetic code from DNA to ribosomes; transfer RNA (tRNA) delivers specific amino acids; ribosomal RNA (rRNA) forms part of the ribosome structure.
RNA（核糖核酸）的区别在于含核糖和尿嘧啶 U 替代胸腺嘧啶。三种类型频繁出现：信使 RNA (mRNA) 将遗传密码从 DNA 运送到核糖体；转运 RNA (tRNA) 运输特定的氨基酸；核糖体 RNA (rRNA) 构成核糖体结构的一部分。
A gene is a sequence of DNA nucleotides that codes for a polypeptide. The genome is the entire hereditary information of an organism. Genotype is the genetic constitution, while phenotype is the observable characteristics resulting from genotype and environment. An allele is a variant form of a gene.
基因（gene）是编码多肽的一段 DNA 核苷酸序列。基因组（genome）是生物体的全部遗传信息。基因型（genotype）是遗传组成，表现型（phenotype）是由基因型与环境共同作用产生的可观察特征。等位基因（allele）是基因的变异形式。
4. Metabolism and Enzymes | 新陈代谢与酶
Metabolism is the sum of all chemical reactions in a cell, divided into anabolic (building up, requiring energy, e.g. protein synthesis) and catabolic (breaking down, releasing energy, e.g. respiration). An enzyme is a biological catalyst that lowers activation energy, speeding up reactions without being consumed.
新陈代谢（metabolism）是细胞内所有化学反应的总和，分为合成代谢（anabolic，构建物质，需要能量，如蛋白质合成）和分解代谢（catabolic，分解物质，释放能量，如呼吸作用）。酶（enzyme）是生物催化剂，通过降低活化能来加速反应，自身不被消耗。
The substrate binds to the enzyme's active site, forming an enzyme-substrate complex. The lock-and-key model suggests perfect complementarity, while the induced-fit model states the active site changes shape slightly to accommodate the substrate. Factors affecting enzyme activity include temperature (initially increases rate until denaturation), pH (optimum depends on enzyme; extreme pH denatures) and substrate concentration (rate plateaus when active sites are saturated). Competitive inhibitors resemble the substrate and block the active site; non-competitive inhibitors bind elsewhere, changing the enzyme's shape.
底物与酶的活性位点结合，形成酶-底物复合物。锁钥模型认为两者完全互补，而诱导契合模型指出活性位点会轻微改变形状以包裹底物。影响酶活性的因素包括温度（最初加快反应速率，直至变性）、pH（不同酶有不同最适 pH；极端 pH 导致变性）和底物浓度（活性位点饱和时速率趋于平稳）。竞争性抑制剂与底物相似，占据活性位点；非竞争性抑制剂在别处结合，改变酶的构象。
5. Transport Across Membranes | 跨膜运输
Substances can cross membranes by passive transport (no energy required) or active transport (requires ATP). Passive transport includes diffusion (net movement of particles from high to low concentration down a concentration gradient), facilitated diffusion (through channel or carrier proteins, still down gradient), and osmosis (diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane from a region of higher water potential to lower water potential).
物质可通过被动运输（无需能量）或主动运输（需 ATP）穿越细胞膜。被动运输包括扩散（粒子沿浓度梯度从高浓度区域到低浓度区域的净移动）、易化扩散（通过通道蛋白或载体蛋白，依然顺浓度梯度）和渗透作用（水通过选择透过性膜从较高水势区域向较低水势区域的扩散）。
Water potential (Ψ) is measured in pressure units (kPa) and is affected by solute concentration and pressure. Pure water at STP has a water potential of zero; adding solutes lowers water potential (makes it more negative). Active transport uses carrier proteins to pump substances against their concentration gradient, for example the sodium–potassium pump (Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase), which moves three Na⁺ out and two K⁺ in per ATP hydrolysed. Bulk transport includes endocytosis (phagocytosis for solids, pinocytosis for liquids) and exocytosis.
水势（Ψ）以压力单位（kPa）衡量，受溶质浓度和压力影响。标准状况下纯水的水势为零；加入溶质会降低水势（使其变为负值）。主动运输利用载体蛋白逆浓度梯度泵出物质，例如钠钾泵（Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase），每水解一个 ATP 将 3 个 Na⁺ 泵出、2 个 K⁺ 泵入。批量运输包括内吞（吞噬固体、胞饮液体）和外排。
6. DNA Replication and PCR | DNA复制与PCR
DNA replication is semi-conservative: each new double helix contains one original strand and one newly synthesised strand. The enzyme helicase unwinds the helix and breaks hydrogen bonds; DNA polymerase adds complementary nucleotides in the 5′ to 3′ direction, reading the template 3′ to 5′. Primase synthesises an RNA primer to allow polymerase to start. The leading strand is synthesised continuously, the lagging strand in fragments (Okazaki fragments) later joined by DNA ligase.
DNA 复制是半保留的：每个新的双螺旋含有一条原始链和一条新合成的链。解旋酶（helicase）解开螺旋并断裂氢键；DNA 聚合酶（DNA polymerase）沿模板 3′ 到 5′ 方向阅读，以 5′ 到 3′ 方向添加互补核苷酸。引物酶（primase）合成 RNA 引物使聚合酶能够起始。前导链连续合成，后随链以冈崎片段合成，随后由 DNA 连接酶（ligase）连接。
The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplifies DNA in vitro. Required components: template DNA, primers (short single-stranded DNA), DNA polymerase (thermostable Taq polymerase), free nucleotides and a thermal cycler. Cycles: denaturation (~95 °C) separates strands, annealing (~55 °C) allows primers to bind, extension (~72 °C) optimises polymerase activity. PCR is used in forensics, disease diagnosis and genetic research.
聚合酶链反应（PCR）在体外扩增 DNA。所需组分：模板 DNA、引物（短单链 DNA）、DNA 聚合酶（耐热的 Taq 聚合酶）、游离核苷酸和热循环仪。循环步骤：变性（~95 °C）解开双链，退火（~55 °C）使引物结合，延伸（~72 °C）优化聚合酶活性。PCR 用于法医学、疾病诊断和遗传研究。
7. Gene Expression: Transcription & Translation | 基因表达：转录与翻译
Gene expression transfers the genetic code into a functional polypeptide. Transcription occurs in the nucleus: RNA polymerase binds to a promoter region, unwinds DNA and synthesises a complementary mRNA strand from the template strand. The mRNA is modified in eukaryotes: a 5′ cap is added, a poly-A tail is added at the 3′ end, and introns (non-coding regions) are spliced out, leaving exons joined together (RNA splicing).
基因表达将遗传密码转化为功能性多肽。转录（transcription）发生在细胞核内：RNA 聚合酶与启动子区域结合，解开 DNA 并以模板链合成互补的 mRNA 链。真核生物中的 mRNA 经过加工：添加 5′ 帽，3′ 端添加多聚腺苷酸尾（poly-A tail），内含子（非编码区）被剪切除去，外显子连接在一起（RNA 剪接）。
Translation occurs on ribosomes in the cytoplasm. The mRNA codon (three bases) pairs with the anticodon of a specific tRNA carrying the corresponding amino acid. The ribosome reads codons sequentially; peptide bonds form between adjacent amino acids. The process continues until a stop codon (UAA, UAG, UGA) is reached, releasing the completed polypeptide. A polysome is a cluster of ribosomes translating the same mRNA simultaneously, amplifying protein output.
翻译（translation）在细胞质的核糖体上进行。mRNA 上的密码子（三个碱基）与携带特定氨基酸的 tRNA 的反密码子配对。核糖体依次阅读密码子，相邻氨基酸之间形成肽键。直到遇到终止密码子（UAA、UAG、UGA），释放完整的多肽。多聚核糖体（polysome）是同时翻译同一条 mRNA 的一簇核糖体，放大了蛋白质产量。
8. Mutations and Genetic Variation | 突变与遗传变异
A mutation is a random change in the DNA sequence. Point mutations include substitution (one base replaced), which can be silent (same amino acid), missense (different amino acid) or nonsense (premature stop codon). Frameshift mutations result from insertions or deletions that shift the reading frame, often drastically altering the protein. Mutations can occur spontaneously or be induced by mutagens (radiation, certain chemicals).
突变是 DNA 序列的随机变化。点突变包括置换（一个碱基被替换），可以是同义突变（同一氨基酸）、错义突变（不同氨基酸）或无义突变（提前终止密码子）。移码突变由插入或缺失引起，改变阅读框，通常严重改变蛋白质。突变可自发产生，也可由诱变剂（辐射、某些化学品）诱导。
Chromosome mutations alter the structure or number of chromosomes. Examples include deletion, duplication, inversion, translocation, and non-disjunction leading to aneuploidy (e.g. Down syndrome – trisomy 21). Meiosis generates variation through independent assortment of homologous chromosomes and crossing over, where sections of non-sister chromatids are exchanged, producing recombinant chromatids.
染色体突变改变染色体的结构或数目。例子包括缺失、重复、倒位、易位，以及不分离导致的非整倍体（如唐氏综合征–21 三体）。减数分裂通过同源染色体的独立分配和交叉来产生变异：交叉中非姐妹染色单体片段交换，形成重组染色单体。
9. Evolutionary Biology Terms | 进化生物学术语
Evolution is a change in allele frequency in a population over time. Natural selection acts on heritable variation: individuals with advantageous adaptations survive and reproduce more, passing those alleles on. The three types of selection are directional (favours one extreme), stabilising (favours intermediate) and disruptive (favours both extremes).
进化是种群中等位基因频率随时间的变化。自然选择作用于可遗传的变异：具有有利适应性的个体存活并繁殖更多，将那些等位基因传递下去。三种选择类型：定向选择（偏好一个极端）、稳定化选择（偏好中间类型）和分裂选择（偏好两个极端）。
Speciation is the formation of new species. A species is a group of organisms capable of interbreeding to produce fertile offspring. Allopatric speciation involves a geographical barrier; sympatric speciation occurs without physical separation, often through behavioural or ecological isolation. Evolution is supported by evidence from fossils, comparative anatomy (homologous vs analogous structures), molecular biology and biogeography.
物种形成是新物种的产生。物种是能够杂交并生育可育后代的一群生物。异域物种形成涉及地理屏障；同域物种形成在没有物理隔离的情况下发生，通常通过行为或生态隔离。进化的证据包括化石、比较解剖学（同源结构与同功结构）、分子生物学和生物地理学。
10. Photosynthesis and Respiration | 光合作用与呼吸作用
dependent reactions (in thylakoid membranes) and the Calvin cycle (in stroma). In light reactions, photolysis of water (H₂O → ½O₂ + 2H⁺ + 2e⁻) generates ATP and reduced NADP (NADPH). The Calvin cycle uses ATP and NADPH to fix CO₂ into glucose; the key enzyme is RuBisCO.
光合作用在叶绿体中将光能转化为化学能。总方程式：6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂。它包括光反应（在类囊体膜）和卡尔文循环（在基质）。光反应中，水的光解（H₂O → ½O₂ + 2H⁺ + 2e⁻）产生 ATP 和还原型 NADP（NADPH）。卡尔文循环利用 ATP 和 NADPH 将 CO₂ 固定为葡萄糖；关键酶是 RuBisCO。
Aerobic respiration takes place in mitochondria. Glycolysis (in cytoplasm) breaks glucose into two pyruvate, yielding a net 2 ATP and 2 NADH. Pyruvate enters the link reaction, forming acetyl-CoA, which feeds into the Krebs cycle (matrix), producing CO₂, NADH and FADH₂. The electron transport chain (inner membrane) uses the energy from reduced coenzymes to generate most ATP by oxidative phosphorylation; O₂ is the final electron acceptor, forming H₂O. Total ATP per glucose is about 30-32, not a fixed number, as membrane leakages vary.
有氧呼吸在线粒体中进行。糖酵解（细胞质）将葡萄糖分解为两个丙酮酸，净产 2 ATP 和 2 NADH。丙酮酸进入衔接反应生成乙酰辅酶 A，随后进入克雷布斯循环（基质），产生 CO₂、NADH 和 FADH₂。电子传递链（内膜）利用还原辅酶的能态通过氧化磷酸化生成大部分 ATP；O₂ 是最终电子受体，形成 H₂O。每个葡萄糖约产生 30-32 个 ATP，并非固定数字，因膜渗漏而变动。
11. Immunity and Pathogens | 免疫与病原体
Pathogens are disease-causing organisms: bacteria, viruses, fungi and protists. Non-specific defences include physical barriers (skin, mucus), chemical secretions (lysozyme in tears, stomach acid) and inflammatory responses. Specific immunity involves lymphocytes. B lymphocytes mature in bone marrow and produce antibodies that bind to specific antigens; this is humoral immunity. T lymphocytes mature in the thymus: helper T cells activate B cells and cytotoxic T cells destroy infected body cells (cell-mediated immunity).
病原体是引起疾病的生物：细菌、病毒、真菌和原生生物。非特异性防御包括物理屏障（皮肤、粘液）、化学分泌物（泪液中的溶菌酶、胃酸）和炎症反应。特异性免疫涉及淋巴细胞。B 淋巴细胞在骨髓中成熟，产生与特定抗原结合的抗体，这是体液免疫。T 淋巴细胞在胸腺中成熟：辅助 T 细胞激活 B 细胞，细胞毒性 T 细胞摧毁受感染的体细胞（细胞介导免疫）。
Immunological memory relies on memory B and T cells, enabling a faster secondary response. Vaccination exploits this by introducing antigens to stimulate active immunity without disease. Autoimmune diseases occur when the immune system attacks self-antigens. Antibiotics work against bacteria but not viruses, while antiviral drugs inhibit viral replication.
免疫记忆依赖于记忆 B 细胞和记忆 T 细胞，使二次应答更快更强。疫苗接种利用这一点，通过引入抗原来激发主动免疫而不引起疾病。当免疫系统攻击自身抗原时发生自身免疫病。抗生素对抗细菌但无法对抗病毒，抗病毒药物则抑制病毒复制。
12. Data Handling and Scientific Terminology | 数据处理与科学术语
SQA exam questions frequently test your ability to interpret graphs and experiments. Accuracy describes how close a measured value is to the true value; precision describes the spread of repeated measurements. Validation is the process of checking that the experimental method produces reliable data. Variables: independent (manipulated), dependent (measured), and confounding (other factors that must be controlled or accounted for).
SQA 考题经常测试解读图表与实验的能力。准确度（accuracy）描述测量值与真实值的接近程度；精密度（precision）描述重复测量值的分散程度。验证（validation）是检查实验方法是否产生可靠数据的过程。变量：自变量（操纵的）、因变量（测量的）以及混淆变量（必须控制或考虑的其他因素）。
Statistical terms to know: mean (average), median (middle value when sorted), mode (most frequent), range (max – min), standard deviation (measure of spread around the mean). A wide standard deviation indicates high variability. The null hypothesis states there is no significant difference or relationship; statistical tests (e.g. t-test, chi-squared) are used to determine whether to reject it at a given probability level (p < 0.05 is common). Always link data back to biological context in your answer.
需掌握的统计术语：平均值（mean）、中位数（median，排序后的中间值）、众数（mode）、极差（range，最大值减最小值）、标准差（standard deviation，衡量围绕均值的离散程度）。标准差大表示变异性高。零假设（null hypothesis）陈述无显著差异或关系；统计检验（如 t 检验、卡方检验）用于判断在给定概率水平（常用 p < 0.05）是否拒绝零假设。作答时务必把数据与生物学背景联系起来。
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