📚 Year 13 WJEC Sociology: Key Terms Rapid Recall Guide | Year 13 WJEC 社会学：关键术语速记指南
Mastering the terminology is half the battle in A‑level Sociology. This rapid‑recall guide covers the most important concepts for Year 13 WJEC units on crime and deviance, social inequality, education, globalisation, and research methods. For each term you will find a clear definition in English, immediately followed by its Chinese equivalent, helping you to build a robust bilingual sociological vocabulary and deepen your understanding of key theories.
掌握术语是 A‑level 社会学成功的一半。这份速记指南涵盖了 Year 13 WJEC 单元中犯罪与越轨、社会不平等、教育、全球化和研究方法等最重要的概念。每个术语都附有清晰的英文定义，紧接着是中文对应解释，帮助你建立扎实的双语社会学词汇，加深对关键理论的理解。
1. Functionalism Key Terms | 功能主义关键术语
Value consensus (价值共识) – This is the idea that society functions smoothly when its members share a common set of norms and values. For functionalists like Émile Durkheim, value consensus acts as the social glue that binds individuals together, ensuring cooperation and stability.
价值共识是指社会成员共享一套共同的规范和价值观，从而使社会平稳运作。对涂尔干等功能主义者而言，价值共识就像社会的粘合剂，把个人联系在一起，保证合作与稳定。
Organic analogy (有机类比) – Functionalists compare society to a biological organism, where different institutions—such as the family, education, and the economy—work together like organs to maintain the health of the whole. This analogy underlines the interdependent nature of social structures.
功能主义者将社会比作生物有机体，不同的制度——如家庭、教育和经济——像器官一样协同工作，维持整个体系的健康。这一类比强调了社会结构相互依存的性质。
Social solidarity (社会团结) – The sense of belonging and cohesion that arises when individuals feel connected to their society through shared rituals, collective conscience, and mutual support. Durkheim argued that a lack of social solidarity leads to anomie and social breakdown.
社会团结是指个人通过共同的仪式、集体意识和相互支持而感受到的归属感和凝聚力。涂尔干认为，缺乏社会团结会导致失范和社会崩溃。
Anomie (失范) – A condition of normlessness where the rules that govern social behaviour break down. Durkheim used this concept to explain how rapid social change can disrupt the collective conscience, resulting in higher rates of deviance and suicide.
失范是一种规范缺失的状态，指引社会行为的规则崩溃。涂尔干用这个概念解释快速的社会变化如何扰乱集体意识，导致越轨行为和自杀率上升。
2. Marxism Key Terms | 马克思主义关键术语
Bourgeoisie (资产阶级) – The ruling class that owns and controls the means of production (factories, land, capital). According to Karl Marx, the bourgeoisie exploits the proletariat by extracting surplus value from their labour.
资产阶级是拥有并控制生产资料（工厂、土地、资本）的统治阶级。卡尔·马克思认为，资产阶级通过榨取无产阶级劳动的剩余价值来剥削他们。
Proletariat (无产阶级) – The working class who, lacking ownership of the means of production, must sell their labour power to the bourgeoisie in order to survive. Marx believed the proletariat would eventually develop class consciousness and overthrow capitalism.
无产阶级是工人阶级，由于不拥有生产资料，必须将自己的劳动力出卖给资产阶级以求生存。马克思相信无产阶级最终会形成阶级意识并推翻资本主义。
False class consciousness (虚假阶级意识) – A situation where the working class adopts the dominant ideology of the ruling class, accepting their subordinate position as natural or inevitable. This prevents the proletariat from recognising their shared exploitation and taking revolutionary action.
虚假阶级意识是指工人阶级接受了统治阶级的主导意识形态，将自己的从属地位视为自然或不可避免的。这阻碍了无产阶级认识到共同的剥削并采取革命行动。
Alienation (异化) – In Marxist theory, the estrangement of workers from their human potential due to capitalist production. Workers are alienated from the product of their labour, the production process, their own creativity, and from each other.
在马克思主义理论中，异化是指工人由于资本主义生产而与其作为人的潜能相疏离。工人与他们劳动的产品、生产过程、自身的创造力以及彼此之间发生异化。
3. Feminism Key Terms | 女性主义关键术语
Patriarchy (父权制) – A social system in which men hold primary power and dominate in roles of political leadership, moral authority, and control of property. Feminists see patriarchy as a fundamental source of gender inequality that operates across all institutions.
父权制是一种社会制度，男性掌握主要权力，在政治领导、道德权威和财产控制中占据主导地位。女性主义者认为父权制是性别不平等的根本来源，在所有制度中运作。
Liberal feminism (自由女性主义) – A strand of feminism that focuses on achieving gender equality through legal reforms and policy changes, such as equal pay legislation and anti‑discrimination laws. It seeks to remove barriers to women's full participation in public life without necessarily challenging the underlying structure of capitalism.
自由女性主义是女性主义的一个流派，侧重于通过法律改革和政策变化（如同工同酬立法和反歧视法）来实现性别平等。它旨在消除女性充分参与公共生活的障碍，而不必然挑战资本主义的基本结构。
Radical feminism (激进女性主义) – This perspective argues that patriarchy is the primary and most pervasive form of oppression, deeply embedded in personal relationships and the family. Radical feminists believe that only a fundamental reordering of society—often including separatism—can liberate women.
激进女性主义认为父权制是最主要、最普遍的压迫形式，深深嵌入个人关系和家庭之中。激进女性主义者相信只有彻底重组社会（通常包括分离主义）才能解放女性。
Intersectionality (交叉性) – A concept introduced by Kimberlé Crenshaw to describe how different social divisions—such as race, class, gender, and sexuality—interact to create overlapping and interdependent systems of discrimination. It reminds us that a person's experience of inequality cannot be understood by looking at only one identity category.
交叉性是由金伯利·克伦肖提出的概念，描述不同社会分层——如种族、阶级、性别和性取向——如何相互作用，形成重叠且相互依存的歧视体系。它提醒我们，一个人遭遇的不平等不能被单一看待一个身份类别来理解。
4. Interactionism Key Terms | 互动论关键术语
Labelling (贴标签) – The process by which social groups define or label individuals as deviant, criminal, or otherwise different. Howard Becker argued that deviance is not a quality of the act a person commits but a consequence of the application of rules and sanctions by others.
贴标签是社会群体将个人定义为越轨者、罪犯或其他不同类型的过程。霍华德·贝克尔认为，越轨不是一个人所犯行为本身的特质，而是他人运用规则和制裁的结果。
Self‑fulfilling prophecy (自我实现预言) – A prediction that directly or indirectly causes itself to become true. In education, for example, if a teacher labels a student as 'low ability' and treats them accordingly, the student may internalise that label and perform poorly, thereby confirming the original judgement.
自我实现预言是一种直接或间接导致自身成真的预言。例如在教育中，如果教师将学生贴上“低能力”的标签并相应对待，学生可能会内化这一标签且表现不佳，从而证实原先的判断。
Master status (主要身份) – A social position that becomes the overriding characteristic by which an individual is identified, overshadowing all other statuses. For example, a person with a criminal record may find that 'ex‑offender' becomes their master status, affecting employment and social relationships.
主要身份是一种社会地位，成为识别个人的压倒性特征，盖过所有其他身份。例如，有犯罪记录的人可能会发现“前罪犯”成为其主要身份，影响就业和社会关系。
Definition of the situation (情境定义) – An idea from W. I. Thomas that individuals act based on their subjective interpretation of a social situation, rather than on objective reality. If people define a situation as real, it becomes real in its consequences.
情境定义是W. I. 托马斯提出的概念，认为个人是基于对某种社会情境的主观解释来行动的，而非客观现实。如果人们将某种情境定义为真实，那么它在后果上就是真实的。
5. Crime and Deviance Key Terms | 犯罪与越轨关键术语
Deviance (越轨) – Any behaviour that violates the accepted norms and expectations of a particular social group or society. Deviance is relative: what is considered deviant varies across cultures, historical periods, and contexts.
越轨是指任何违反特定社会群体或社会所接受的规范与预期的行为。越轨是相对的：什么是越轨因文化、历史时期和情境而异。
White‑collar crime (白领犯罪) – Crimes committed by individuals of high social status in the course of their professional occupations. Edwin Sutherland introduced this term to draw attention to crimes such as fraud, embezzlement, and insider trading, which often cause greater financial harm than street crime but are less likely to be prosecuted.
白领犯罪是社会地位较高的个人在其职业过程中实施的犯罪。埃德温·萨瑟兰引入该术语以引起对欺诈、挪用公款和内幕交易等犯罪的关注，这些犯罪往往比街头犯罪造成更大的经济损失，却较少被起诉。
Moral panic (道德恐慌) – A concept developed by Stan Cohen to describe an exaggerated societal reaction to a perceived threat to the social order, often amplified by the media. A group is labelled as 'folk devils', and a cycle of heightened public anxiety leads to a demand for stronger social control.
道德恐慌是斯坦·科恩提出的概念，描述社会对感知到的社会秩序威胁的过度反应，通常由媒体放大。某个群体被贴上“民间恶魔”的标签，高涨的公众焦虑循环导致要求更强的社会控制。
Strain theory (紧张理论) – Robert Merton's explanation of deviance that arises from a mismatch between the culturally approved goals of society (e.g. material success) and the legitimate means available to achieve them. When individuals cannot achieve success through conventional paths, they may resort to innovation, ritualism, retreatism, or rebellion.
紧张理论是罗伯特·默顿对越轨行为的解释，认为越轨源于社会文化认可的目标（如物质成功）与实现这些目标的合法手段之间的不匹配。当个人无法通过常规途径取得成功时，他们可能转向革新、仪式主义、退却主义或反叛。
6. Social Inequality Key Terms | 社会不平等关键术语
Social stratification (社会分层) – The hierarchical organisation of society into different strata based on factors such as class, status, and power. Sociologists study how these layers affect people's life chances and social mobility.
社会分层是指社会根据阶级、地位和权力等因素被组织成不同的层级。社会学家研究这些层级如何影响人们的生活机会和社会流动。
Life chances (生活机会) – Coined by Max Weber, this term refers to the opportunities an individual has to acquire the things considered desirable in a society, such as good health, education, and a comfortable standard of living. Life chances are strongly shaped by class position.
生活机会是马克斯·韦伯提出的术语，指个人获得社会所认为值得拥有的事物的机会，如健康、教育和舒适的生活水准。生活机会在很大程度上受阶级地位影响。
Social mobility (社会流动) – The movement of individuals or groups between different positions in the stratification system. It can be vertical (upward or downward) or horizontal. High levels of social mobility suggest an open society, while low mobility points to entrenched inequality.
社会流动是指个人或群体在分层体系中不同位置之间的移动。可以是垂直的（向上或向下）或水平的。高水平的社会流动表明一个开放的社会，而低流动则指向根深蒂固的不平等。
Relative deprivation (相对剥夺) – A feeling of being disadvantaged in comparison to others, even when a person's material circumstances have not necessarily worsened. It is a subjective measure of inequality that can lead to social unrest and crime.
相对剥夺是一种与他人相比感觉自己处于劣势的感受，即使个人的物质条件不一定变差。它是一种主观的不平等衡量标准，可能会导致社会动荡和犯罪。
7. Education Key Terms | 教育关键术语
Hidden curriculum (隐性课程) – The informal learning that takes place in schools alongside the formal curriculum. It includes norms, values, and attitudes such as obedience, punctuality, and acceptance of hierarchy, which functionalists see as preparing young people for the workplace.
隐性课程是学校中除正式课程外发生的非正式学习。它包括服从、守时和接受等级制度等规范、价值观和态度，功能主义者认为这些为年轻人进入职场做好准备。
Cultural capital (文化资本) – Pierre Bourdieu's concept referring to the knowledge, skills, tastes, and ways of speaking that middle‑class children acquire from their families, giving them an advantage in the education system because schools value and reward this cultural knowledge.
文化资本是皮埃尔·布迪厄的概念，指中产阶级子女从家庭中获得的知识、技能、品味和说话方式，这赋予他们在教育体系中的优势，因为学校重视并奖励这种文化知识。
Marketisation (市场化) – The process of introducing market principles into education, such as competition between schools, parental choice, and league tables. Critics argue it creates a 'parentocracy' and widens inequalities as middle‑class parents are better able to use the system to their advantage.
市场化是将市场原则引入教育的过程，如学校之间的竞争、家长选择和排行榜。批评者认为它创造了“家长特权”并扩大了不平等，因为中产阶级家长更善于利用这个体系为自己谋利。
Labelling in schools (学校中的标签) – Teachers often attach labels to students based on appearance, speech, social class, or previous ability groups. Interactionists show that these labels influence the way teachers interact with pupils, leading to self‑fulfilling prophecies that can create underachievement or success.
教师常常根据外表、言谈、社会阶级或以往的能力分组给学生贴标签。互动论者指出，这些标签影响教师与学生的互动方式，导致自我实现预言，可能造成学业落后或成功。
8. Research Methods Key Terms | 研究方法关键术语
Validity (效度) – The extent to which a research method measures what it claims to measure. A valid study produces a true and authentic picture of social reality, with qualitative methods often favoured for gaining deep, valid insights.
效度是指研究方法在多大程度上测量到它声称要测量的东西。一项有效的研究会呈现出社会现实的真实图景，质性方法往往更适合获得深入、有效的见解。
Reliability (信度) – The degree to which a study can be replicated and produce the same or consistent results. Quantitative methods such as structured questionnaires and official statistics are typically high in reliability because they can be easily repeated.
信度是指一项研究可被复制并产生相同或一致结果的程度。定量方法，如结构化问卷和官方统计，通常信度较高，因为它们易于重复。
Triangulation (三角验证) – The use of two or more research methods in the same study to cross‑check data and increase confidence in the findings. For example, combining semi‑structured interviews with observation can enhance both validity and reliability.
三角验证是在同一研究中使用两种或多种研究方法来交叉核对数据，提高对研究结果的信心。例如，将半结构化访谈与观察相结合，可以同时提升效度和信度。
Operationalisation (操作化) – The process of clearly defining a concept or variable so that it can be measured or observed in research. For instance, if studying 'educational success', a sociologist must operationalise it as, say, GCSE attainment points or teacher‑assessed grades.
操作化是清晰定义一个概念或变量以便在研究中加以测量或观察的过程。例如，如果研究“教育成就”，社会学家必须将其操作化为，比如，GCSE 达标分数或教师评定等级。
9. Globalisation and Media Key Terms | 全球化与媒体关键术语
Cultural homogenisation (文化同质化) – The process by which local cultures become increasingly similar as a result of the global spread of media, consumer goods, and brands. Critics fear it erodes cultural diversity and imposes Western, especially American, values on the rest of the world.
文化同质化是指随着媒体、消费品和品牌的全球传播，各地文化变得越来越相似的过程。批评者担心这会侵蚀文化多样性，并将西方尤其是美国的价值观强加给世界其他地区。
Media representation (媒体再现) – The way in which the media portray particular groups, events, or issues. Sociologists examine how representations of gender, ethnicity, age, and class are often stereotypical and shape audience perceptions and social attitudes.
媒体再现是指媒体描绘特定群体、事件或议题的方式。社会学家研究对性别、族群、年龄和阶级的再现如何常常带有刻板印象，并塑造受众的认知和社会态度。
Digital divide (数字鸿沟) – The gap between those who have access to digital technologies, especially the internet, and those who do not. The divide mirrors existing social inequalities, as factors like income, education, and location affect who can benefit from the digital world.
数字鸿沟是指能够接触数字技术（尤其是互联网）的人与不能接触者之间的差距。这一鸿沟反映了现有的社会不平等，因为收入、教育和地理位置等因素影响了谁能从数字世界中受益。
Moral entrepreneurs (道德企业家) – Individuals or groups who seek to influence society to adopt or enforce a particular set of moral values. A concept used by Howard Becker to explain how certain behaviours get criminalised; moral entrepreneurs lead campaigns that can generate moral panics and lead to new laws.
道德企业家是指试图影响社会采纳或强化某一套道德价值观的个人或群体。霍华德·贝克尔用这一概念解释某些行为如何被定为犯罪；道德企业家发起的运动可能引发道德恐慌并导致新的法律出台。
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