📚 Year 13 CIE Law Vocabulary & Terminology Quick-Memorisation Guide | 13年级 CIE 法律：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering legal terminology is essential for success in Year 13 CIE Law. This guide presents key terms grouped by topic, each with a concise English definition and a Chinese equivalent, followed by a short bilingual explanation to deepen understanding. Use these entries to build a mental map of the law, linking each term to case law and statutory principles.
掌握法律术语是13年级 CIE 法律取得高分的关键。本指南按主题归纳核心词汇，每个术语先给出简明英文定义与中文对应词，再用一段双语讲解加深理解。借助这些条目构建法律知识脑图，把每个术语与判例和制定法原则紧紧联系在一起。
1. Actus Reus & Mens Rea | 犯罪行为与犯罪意图
The two fundamental building blocks of criminal liability. Actus reus refers to the guilty act – the physical element of a crime, which can be an action, an omission or a state of affairs. Mens rea is the guilty mind – the mental element, such as intention, recklessness or negligence. Both must coincide for an offence to be complete, except for strict liability crimes where mens rea is not required.
刑事责任的两大基石。Actus reus（犯罪行为）是指罪行中的客观要素——可以是作为、不作为或特定状态；Mens rea（犯罪意图）则是主观要素，如故意、轻率或过失。原则上二者必须同时存在才能定罪，但严格责任犯罪不要求证明犯罪意图。
- Actus reus 犯罪行为 – The external element of a crime – 犯罪的外在行为要素。
- Mens rea 犯罪意图 – The mental element or guilty mind – 犯罪的心理要素或罪过心态。
- Omission 不作为 – A failure to act when there is a duty to do so – 负有作为义务却不作为。
- Strict liability 严格责任 – Offences that do not require proof of mens rea – 无需证明犯罪意图即可定罪。
- Transferred malice 转移恶意 – When the mens rea intended for one victim is transferred to the actual victim – 意图伤害某人却导致另一人受害时，主观恶意转移至实际受害者。
2. Causation | 因果关系
Causation links the defendant's conduct to the result. In criminal law, both factual and legal causation must be proved. Factual causation uses the ‘but for’ test: but for the defendant's actions, would the harm have occurred? Legal causation requires the defendant's act to be a substantial and operating cause of the result, and any intervening act must be assessed to determine if it breaks the chain of causation.
因果关系将被告的行为与结果连接起来。刑法中必须同时证明事实因果与法律因果。事实因果采用“若无则不”检验：若无被告的行为，损害是否仍然发生？法律因果要求被告行为是结果的实质性且持续的原因，任何介入行为都须考察是否中断因果链条。
- Factual causation 事实因果关系 – The ‘but for’ test – “若无则不”检验。
- Legal causation 法律因果关系 – Substantial and operating cause – 实质性且持续的原因。
- Novus actus interveniens 新介入行为 – An intervening act that breaks the chain of causation – 中断因果关系的介入行为。
- Thin-skull rule 蛋壳脑袋规则 – The defendant must take the victim as they find them – 被告必须接受受害者的现有脆弱状况。
3. Non-Fatal Offences Against the Person | 非致命人身侵害罪
The key offences are assault, battery, assault occasioning actual bodily harm (ABH), malicious wounding or inflicting grievous bodily harm (GBH) under s.20, and wounding or causing GBH with intent under s.18. Distinguishing them depends on the degree of harm and the mens rea required. Assault and battery are common law offences, while the more serious ones are statutory under the Offences Against the Person Act 1861.
核心罪名包括 assault（威胁）、battery（殴打）、造成实际身体伤害的 assault（ABH）、第20条下的恶意伤人/造成严重身体伤害以及第18条下的蓄意伤人/造成严重身体伤害。区分它们要看伤害程度和所需犯罪意图。Assault 与 battery 是普通法罪行，更严重的罪名由《1861年人身侵害罪法》规定。
- Assault 威胁 – Intentionally or recklessly causing another to apprehend immediate unlawful force – 故意或轻率使他人担忧即将遭受非法暴力。
- Battery 殴打 – The actual infliction of unlawful force – 实际实施非法暴力。
- ABH 实际身体伤害 – Any hurt or injury calculated to interfere with health or comfort – 任何足以影响健康或舒适度的伤痛。
- GBH 严重身体伤害 – Really serious harm – 真正严重的伤害。
- Wounding 创伤 – Breaking both layers of the skin – 造成皮肤内外两层破裂。
4. Property Offences | 财产犯罪
Theft, robbery and burglary are defined under the Theft Act 1968. Theft requires appropriation of property belonging to another with the intention to permanently deprive. Robbery is theft plus the use or threat of force immediately before or at the time of stealing. Burglary involves entering a building as a trespasser with intent to commit theft, GBH or unlawful damage.
盗窃、抢劫和入室盗窃由《1968年盗窃法》定义。Theft（盗窃）需要以永久剥夺意图侵占他人财产；Robbery（抢劫）是盗窃加在盗窃前或盗窃时使用或威胁使用暴力；Burglary（入室盗窃）指以侵入者身份进入建筑物，意图实施盗窃、严重身体伤害或非法毁坏。
- Appropriation 侵占 – Any assumption of the rights of the owner – 对所有权人权利的任何冒用。
- Belonging to another 他人财产 – Property in which someone else has possession or control – 他人拥有或控制的财产。
- Intention to permanently deprive 永久剥夺意图 – The defendant’s purpose to treat the property as their own – 被告打算将财产据为己有。
- Trespasser 侵入者 – A person who enters without permission or exceeds permission – 无许可进入或超越许可范围进入者。
5. Defences in Criminal Law | 刑事抗辩理由
Defences can be complete (leading to acquittal) or partial (reducing murder to voluntary manslaughter). Self-defence requires the use of reasonable force to protect oneself or another, or to prevent crime. Duress applies when the defendant is forced to commit a crime by threats of death or serious injury. Intoxication may negate mens rea for specific intent offences but not for basic intent crimes. Mental disorders affect defences like insanity and diminished responsibility.
抗辩理由分完全的（导致无罪释放）和部分的（将谋杀降为自愿过失杀人）。Self-defence（自卫）要求使用合理武力保护自己或他人或防止犯罪；Duress（胁迫）适用于被告因死亡或严重伤害威胁被迫犯罪；Intoxication（醉酒/吸毒）可能否定特定意图犯罪的主观要件，但不能用于基本意图犯罪。精神障碍影响精神病及减轻责任的抗辩。
- Self-defence 自卫 – Reasonable force in defence – 基于防卫的合理武力。
- Duress 胁迫 – Compelled by threats to commit an offence – 受威胁被迫犯罪。
- Diminished responsibility 减轻责任 – An abnormality of mental functioning reducing culpability for murder – 精神功能异常降低谋杀罪责。
- Insanity 精神病 – A defect of reason from disease of the mind – 因心智疾病导致理性缺陷。
- Voluntary intoxication 自愿醉酒 – Can only negate specific intent – 仅能否定特定意图。
6. Murder and Voluntary Manslaughter | 谋杀与自愿过失杀人
Murder is the unlawful killing of a reasonable creature in being under the King's Peace with malice aforethought. Malice aforethought means intention to kill or cause GBH. Voluntary manslaughter arises when a murder charge is reduced due to a partial defence such as loss of control, diminished responsibility, or suicide pact. In these cases, the defendant had the mens rea for murder but mitigating circumstances lower the conviction.
Murder（谋杀）是在国王治下非法杀害有理智的存活者，且具有恶意预谋，即意图杀人或造成严重身体伤害。Voluntary manslaughter（自愿过失杀人）发生在谋杀指控因部分抗辩（如失控、减轻责任或自杀协定）而降格时。被告虽具备谋杀意图，但减轻情节使定罪降级。
- Malice aforethought 恶意预谋 – Intention to kill or cause GBH – 杀人或造成严重身体伤害的意图。
- Loss of control 失控 – A qualifying trigger causing the defendant to lose self-control – 合格触发事件导致被告失去自制力。
- Diminished responsibility 减轻责任 – Abnormal mental functioning that substantially impairs responsibility – 精神功能异常严重削弱责任感。
- Suicide pact 自杀协定 – An agreement between two or more persons to die together – 两人或多人约定共同赴死的协议。
7. Involuntary Manslaughter | 非自愿过失杀人
Involuntary manslaughter covers unlawful killings where the defendant lacks the mens rea for murder. The two main forms are unlawful act manslaughter (also called constructive manslaughter) and gross negligence manslaughter. The former requires an unlawful act that is dangerous and causes death; the latter arises from a breach of duty of care that amounts to gross negligence, creating a serious and obvious risk of death.
非自愿过失杀人指被告没有谋杀意图的非法杀人行为。主要类型有非法行为过失杀人（又称推定过失杀人）和重大过失过失杀人。前者要求实施危险且导致死亡的非法行为；后者则因违反注意义务且构成重大过失，造成明显且严重的死亡风险。
- Unlawful act manslaughter 非法行为过失杀人 – An intentional unlawful act that is objectively dangerous and causes death – 有意的、客观危险的非法行为导致死亡。
- Gross negligence manslaughter 重大过失过失杀人 – A breach of duty so gross as to amount to a crime – 严重违反注意义务，达到犯罪程度。
- Duty of care 注意义务 – A legal obligation to avoid acts or omissions that could foreseeably harm others – 避免可预见伤害他人的作为或不作为的法律义务。
- Risk of death 死亡风险 – Must be obvious and serious – 必须为明显且严重的风险。
8. Law of Contract: Formation | 合同法：合同的成立
A valid contract requires offer, acceptance, consideration and an intention to create legal relations. Offer is a definite promise to be bound on specific terms. Acceptance must mirror the offer and be communicated. Consideration is the price paid by each party for the promise of the other – it must be sufficient but need not be adequate. The distinction between an offer and an invitation to treat is crucial in contract formation.
有效合同需要要约、承诺、对价及建立法律关系的意图。Offer（要约）是愿意受特定条款约束的明确允诺；Acceptance（承诺）必须与要约条款一致并被传达；Consideration（对价）是每一方为对方允诺所付出的代价——它必须充分但不必足够。区分要约与要约邀请在合同成立中至关重要。
- Invitation to treat 要约邀请 – An indication of willingness to negotiate – 表示愿意进行协商的意思。
- Consideration 对价 – Something of value exchanged for a promise – 为获得允诺而交换的有价物。
- Intention to create legal relations 建立法律关系的意图 – The parties must intend the agreement to be legally binding – 当事人必须有意让协议受法律约束。
- Postal rule 投邮规则 – Acceptance by post is effective upon posting – 通过邮寄作出的承诺在投邮时生效。
9. Law of Contract: Terms | 合同法：合同条款
Contractual terms are classified as conditions, warranties and innominate terms. Conditions are fundamental terms; breach allows the innocent party to terminate the contract and claim damages. Warranties are minor terms; breach only entitles the injured party to damages. The innominate term approach assesses the actual effect of the breach to determine the remedy. Terms may be express (stated by the parties) or implied (by statute, custom or courts).
合同条款分为条件、担保和无名条款。Conditions（条件条款）为根本性条款，违反它允许守约方终止合同并索赔；Warranties（担保条款）为次要条款，违反时仅能主张损害赔偿。Innominate term（无名条款）方法则根据违反的实际后果决定救济方式。条款可为明示或默示。
- Condition 条件条款 – A fundamental term going to the root of the contract – 涉及合同根基的根本性条款。
- Warranty 担保条款 – A minor, non-essential term – 次要的、非核心的条款。
- Innominate term 无名条款 – An intermediate term where remedy depends on the seriousness of the breach – 救济取决于违反严重程度的中间性条款。
- Exemption clause 免责条款 – A term limiting or excluding liability – 限制或排除责任的条款。
10. Law of Contract: Discharge and Remedies | 合同法：解除与救济
A contract may be discharged by performance, agreement, breach or frustration. Frustration occurs when an unforeseen event makes performance impossible, illegal or radically different from what was agreed, and neither party is at fault. Remedies for breach of contract include damages, specific performance and injunctions. Damages aim to put the claimant in the position they would have been in had the contract been performed.
合同可通过履行、协议、违约或受挫而解除。Frustration（合同受挫）发生在不可预见事件使得履行不可能、非法或发生根本变化，且任何一方均无过错时。违约救济包括损害赔偿、特定履行和禁令。Damages（损害赔偿）旨在将索赔人置于合同正常履行后应有的地位。
- Frustration 合同受挫 – Discharge of contract due to a supervening event – 因后续事件而解除合同。
- Expectation interest 期待利益 – The benefit the claimant would have received from performance – 索赔人本可获得的合同履行利益。
- Mitigation 减损 – The claimant must take reasonable steps to minimise loss – 索赔人须采取合理措施减少损失。
- Specific performance 特定履行 – A court order compelling a party to perform their contractual obligations – 法院命令一方履行合同义务。
11. Tort Law: Negligence | 侵权法：过失侵权
Negligence requires a duty of care, breach of that duty, and damage caused by the breach that is not too remote. The Caparo three-part test governs duty: foreseeability of harm, proximity between the parties, and that it is fair, just and reasonable to impose a duty. Breach is judged by the standard of the reasonable person, and professionals by the standard of their profession. The claimant must prove both causation in fact and in law.
过失侵权需要证明注意义务、违反义务以及由此造成且非太过远的损害。Caparo 三步检验法确定义务：损害可预见性、当事人间邻近性、以及施加义务公平公正合理。违反义务以合理人标准判断，专业人士以同行标准判断。索赔人须证明事实因果与法律因果。
- Duty of care 注意义务 – A legal obligation to take reasonable care – 采取合理注意的法律义务。
- Breach of duty 违反义务 – Falling below the standard of care – 未达到注意标准。
- Factual causation 事实因果 – The ‘but for’ test – “若无则不”检验。
- Remoteness of damage 损害遥远性 – Damage must be reasonably foreseeable – 损害必须是可以合理预见的。
- Res ipsa loquitur 事实自证 – The facts speak for themselves – 事实本身说明问题。
12. Tort Law: Occupiers' Liability | 侵权法：占有人责任
Occupiers' liability governs the duty an occupier of premises owes to entrants. The Occupiers' Liability Act 1957 covers lawful visitors, requiring the occupier to take reasonable care to see that visitors are reasonably safe for the purpose they are invited. The Occupiers' Liability Act 1984 imposes a more limited duty towards trespassers, requiring the occupier to take reasonable care in certain circumstances, such as where they are aware of a danger and the risk is one they may reasonably be expected to offer some protection against.
占有人责任管辖占有人对进入其场所者所负的义务。1957年占有人责任法涵盖合法访客，要求占有人采取合理注意确保访客在受邀目的范围内合理安全。1984年占有人责任法对侵入者的义务更有限，仅当占有人知晓危险且该危险是理应提供某种保护的合理风险时，才须采取合理注意。
- Occupier 占有人 – A person in control of the premises – 对场所拥有控制权的人。
- Lawful visitor 合法访客 – Someone with express or implied permission to enter – 明示或默示许可进入者。
- Trespasser 侵入者 – A person who enters without permission – 未经许可进入者。
- Reasonable care 合理注意 – The level of care a reasonable occupier would show – 理性占有人会采取的注意程度。
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