📚 Year 13 AQA Sociology: Glossaries & Terminology Quick Revision Guide | Year 13 AQA社会学：词汇术语速记指南
A strong command of sociological terminology is the foundation of high‑mark answers at A‑level. This guide brings together the essential terms that Year 13 AQA students must know, spanning theory, methods, crime and deviance, inequality, and contemporary social change. Each entry is paired in English and Chinese to speed up recall and deepen understanding.
扎实的社会学术语掌控是A‑level高分答案的基础。本指南汇集了Year 13 AQA学生必须掌握的关键术语，涵盖理论、研究方法、犯罪与越轨、不平等以及当代社会变迁。每个条目均以英文和中文配对呈现，帮助你快速记忆并加深理解。
1. Sociological Foundations: Structure and Agency | 社会学基础：结构与能动性
Social structure describes the enduring, organised patterns of relationships and institutions—such as family, education, and the legal system—that shape individual behaviour.
社会结构描述的是持续存在且有组织的关系与制度模式——例如家庭、教育和法律体系——它们塑造着个人行为。
Agency is the capacity of individuals to act independently and make their own free choices, often set against the constraining force of structure.
能动性指个人独立行动并自主做出选择的能力，通常与结构的约束力相对。
Socialisation refers to the lifelong process through which individuals learn the norms, values, and roles of their society; primary socialisation occurs in the family, secondary in institutions such as schools and the media.
社会化指个体终身学习社会规范、价值观和角色的过程；初级社会化发生在家庭中，次级社会化则在学校和媒体等机构中进行。
Consensus is a broad agreement on fundamental values and norms, a concept central to functionalist thought, whereas conflict highlights power struggles and competing interests, foundational to Marxist and feminist traditions.
共识是对基本价值观和规范的广泛认同，属功能主义的核心概念；而冲突则突显权力斗争与利益对立，是马克思主义和女性主义传统的基石。
2. Key Terms in Functionalism | 功能主义关键术语
Organic analogy: the comparison of society to a living organism, where each institution functions like an organ to maintain the health of the whole body.
有机类比：将社会比作一个生命体，每个制度就像器官一样发挥作用，维持整个身体的健康。
Social solidarity describes the bonds that unite members of a society, generated through shared rituals, collective conscience, and interdependence.
社会团结描述的是将所有社会成员联系在一起的纽带，由共享仪式、集体意识和相互依赖所生成。
Functional prerequisites are the basic needs that must be met for a society to survive, such as goal attainment and integration, set out by Talcott Parsons.
功能先决条件指社会得以生存所必须满足的基本需求，如目标实现和整合，由塔尔科特·帕森斯提出。
Anomie (originally from Durkheim) is a state of normlessness where social regulation breaks down, leading to moral uncertainty and deviant behaviour.
失范（源自涂尔干）是一种规范丧失的状态，社会调节崩溃，导致道德迷失和越轨行为。
Meritocracy: a system in which rewards and positions are allocated on the basis of individual talent and effort; functionalists see education as promoting this, though critics highlight myth.
精英统治：一种基于个人才能和努力来分配奖赏和职位的制度；功能主义者认为教育促进这一原则，但批评者指出其虚幻性。
3. Key Terms in Marxism | 马克思主义关键术语
Bourgeoisie is the ruling class that owns the means of production (land, factories, capital) and controls the superstructure.
资产阶级是掌握生产资料（土地、工厂、资本）并控制上层建筑的统治阶级。
Proletariat is the working class, who must sell their labour power to survive and are exploited for surplus value.
无产阶级是工人阶级，为生存而出卖自己的劳动力，并因剩余价值而受到剥削。
Ideological state apparatus (ISA), a term from Althusser, refers to institutions like education, religion and the media that transmit bourgeois ideology and reproduce class inequality.
意识形态国家机器，阿尔都塞的术语，指教育、宗教、媒体等机构，它们传播资产阶级意识形态并再生产阶级不平等。
Alienation: the estrangement of workers from the products of their labour, the act of labour, their human potential, and from each other under capitalism.
异化：在资本主义制度下，工人与其劳动产品、劳动行为、自身潜能以及彼此之间的疏离状态。
False consciousness describes the way the proletariat may adopt the ruling‑class world‑view, failing to recognise their true class interests.
虚假意识描述无产阶级可能接受统治阶级的世界观，未能认识到自身真正的阶级利益。
4. Key Terms in Feminism | 女性主义关键术语
Patriarchy is a system of social organisation where men hold primary power and dominate in roles of political leadership, moral authority, and control of property.
父权制是一种男性掌握主要权力、在政治领导、道德权威和财产控制中居于支配地位的社会组织体系。
Glass ceiling: an invisible barrier that prevents women from rising to the highest positions in the workplace, regardless of their qualifications or achievements.
玻璃天花板：一种无形的障碍，阻碍女性升至职场最高层，无论她们的资历或成就如何。
Intersectionality (Crenshaw) recognises that different social divisions—such as gender, class, and ethnicity—interconnect to create overlapping systems of disadvantage.
交叉性（克伦肖）认识到不同的社会划分——如性别、阶级和种族——相互交错，形成重叠的不利体系。
The personal is political is a radical feminist slogan arguing that personal experiences, such as housework and domestic violence, are rooted in wider power structures.
个人即政治是激进女性主义的口号，主张家务和家庭暴力等个人经历根植于更广泛的权力结构之中。
Liberal feminism works within the existing system to achieve legal reforms and equal opportunities, while radical feminism sees the patriarchal system itself as the root cause of oppression.
自由女性主义在现有体系内争取法律改革和平等机会，而激进女性主义将父权制度本身视为压迫的根源。
5. Interactionism and Labelling Theory | 互动论与标签理论
Symbolic interactionism is a micro‑sociological perspective that examines how individuals create and interpret meanings through everyday interactions, using symbols such as language and gestures.
符号互动论是一种微观社会学视角，研究个体如何通过日常互动，使用语言和手势等符号来创造和解释意义。
Labelling is the process by which certain acts or individuals are defined as deviant; the label can lead to a self‑fulfilling prophecy where the labelled person internalises the deviant identity.
标签指某些行为或个人被定义为越轨的过程；这个标签可能导致自证预言，被标记者内化越轨身份。
Master status (Becker) refers to a dominating characteristic that overshadows all other aspects of a person's identity, such as 'criminal' or 'mental patient'.
主要地位（贝克尔）指一种支配一切的特征，它掩盖了个人身份的所有其他方面，如“罪犯”或“精神病患者”。
Moral entrepreneurs are individuals or groups who attempt to create or enforce rules and labels, often campaigning for laws against a perceived social problem.
道德创业者指试图创造或推行规则与标签的个人或群体，他们常常为推动立法以应对被感知的社会问题而奔走呼号。
Deviancy amplification is the process by which the media or authorities overreact to initial deviance, generating increased social control that in turn provokes more deviance, creating a spiral.
越轨放大指媒体或当局对初始越轨行为过度反应，导致社会控制加强，进而引发更多越轨行为，形成螺旋式上升。
6. Crime and Deviance: Core Concepts | 犯罪与越轨：核心概念
Deviance is any behaviour that violates the accepted norms or expectations of a social group; it is not inherently criminal but depends on context and audience reaction.
越轨指任何违反某一社会群体所接受的规范或期望的行为；它本身不必然是犯罪，而取决于情境与观众反应。
Crime is an act that breaks a formal legal code and is punishable by the state, though some acts are illegal yet not widely seen as deviant (e.g. copyright infringement).
犯罪指违反正式法律条文并由国家予以惩罚的行为，尽管某些行为虽属违法却被广泛视作不越轨（如侵犯版权）。
White‑collar crime (Sutherland) refers to crimes committed by persons of high social status in the course of their occupation, often characterised by fraud, embezzlement, and corporate offences.
白领犯罪（萨瑟兰）指社会地位较高者在职业过程中所实施的犯罪行为，多表现为欺诈、挪用公款和公司犯罪。
Moral panic (Cohen) is an exaggerated public reaction to a group or activity perceived as a threat to societal values, often fuelled by media sensationalism and leading to a crackdown by authorities.
道德恐慌（科恩）指社会对某一被视为威胁其价值的群体或行为的过度反应，常由媒体渲染引发，并导致当局的镇压行动。
Folk devils are the individuals or groups who become the focus of moral panics, constructed as the source of social problems, e.g. 'mods and rockers' in Cohen’s study.
民间恶魔指成为道德恐慌焦点的个人或群体，他们被塑造为社会问题的源头，例如科恩研究中的“摩登族和摇滚帮”。
7. Crime Theories: Left and Right Realism | 犯罪理论：左右现实主义
Left realism (Lea & Young) argues that crime is a real problem that disproportionately affects the working class; its root causes include relative deprivation, marginalisation, and subculture.
左派现实主义（李与杨）认为犯罪是真实存在的问题，对工人阶级影响尤其严重；其根源包括相对剥夺、边缘化和亚文化。
Relative deprivation refers to the feeling of being disadvantaged when comparing one’s situation to others, which can lead to frustration and criminal behaviour.
相对剥夺指与他人比较时感受到自身处境不利的心理体验，这种感受可能导致挫败感和犯罪行为。
Right realism (Wilson & Kelling) adopts an individualistic, control‑oriented perspective, emphasising rational choice, broken windows theory, and the need for zero‑tolerance policing.
右派现实主义（威尔逊与凯灵）采取个人主义的控制导向视角，强调理性选择、破窗理论和零容忍警务的必要性。
Broken windows thesis suggests that visible signs of disorder (vandalism, graffiti) signal a breakdown of community control, inviting more serious crime.
破窗论认为，明显的失序迹象（破坏行为、涂鸦）会传递出社区控制瓦解的信号，从而诱发更严重的犯罪。
Routine activities theory (Cohen & Felson) holds that crime occurs when three elements converge: a motivated offender, a suitable target, and the absence of capable guardianship.
日常活动理论（科恩与费尔森）认为犯罪发生需要三个要素汇聚：有动机的犯罪者、合适的目标和缺乏有效监管。
8. Research Methods: Key Vocabulary | 研究方法：关键词汇
Validity refers to the extent to which a research instrument measures what it claims to measure, producing a true or authentic picture of social reality.
效度指研究工具在多大程度上测量到了其所声称测量的内容，从而呈现出对社真实情况的真实描绘。
Reliability is the consistency of a study’s findings; if the research were repeated under the same conditions, it would yield the same results.
信度是指研究结果的一致性；如果在相同条件下重复该研究，会得到相同的结果。
Triangulation involves using more than one method or data source to cross‑check findings, enhancing both validity and reliability.
三角验证指使用多种方法或数据源来交叉核对研究发现，从而提高效度和信度。
Operationalisation is the process of converting abstract sociological concepts into measurable variables, for instance defining 'educational achievement' by GCSE scores.
操作化是将抽象的社会学概念转化为可测量变量的过程，例如用GCSE成绩来定义“教育成就”。
Verstehen (Weber) is an interpretivist approach emphasising empathetic understanding of the subjective meanings actors attach to their actions.
理解（韦伯）是一种阐释主义路径，强调对行动者赋予其行动的主观意义进行共情式理解。
Ethical reflexivity: sociologists must constantly reflect on how their own values, presence, and decisions affect research participants and data interpretation.
伦理反思性：社会学家必须不断反思自身的价值观、在场方式和决策如何影响研究参与者及资料解释。
9. Social Inequality and Class | 社会不平等与阶级
Social stratification is the hierarchical layering of society based on factors such as class, gender, and ethnicity, resulting in unequal access to resources and power.
社会分层是基于阶级、性别和种族等因素将社会划分为等级层次，导致资源和权力的不平等分配。
Cultural capital (Bourdieu) refers to non‑financial social assets — tastes, language, knowledge — that can promote social mobility and are often possessed in greater quantities by the middle class.
文化资本（布尔迪厄）指非金融性社会资产——品味、语言、知识——可促进社会流动，往往由中产阶级大量拥有。
Habitus is a set of deeply ingrained dispositions, habits, and ways of thinking shaped by one’s social background, which influence life choices and are taken for granted.
惯习是一套由社会背景塑造的深层固化的倾向、习惯和思维方式，它影响人生选择并被视为理所当然。
Social exclusion describes the process by which certain groups are pushed to the margins of society and prevented from participating fully in economic, social, and political life.
社会排斥描述某些群体被推向社会边缘，无法充分参与经济、社会和政治生活的过程。
Underclass (Murray) is a controversial term for a segment of the population positioned at the very bottom of the class structure, supposedly characterised by welfare dependency and a culture of poverty.
底层阶级（默里）是一个争议性术语，指处于阶级结构最底层的群体，被假定以福利依赖和贫困文化为特征。
10. Postmodernism and Late Modernity | 后现代主义与晚期现代性
Metanarratives are grand, overarching stories or theories that claim to explain everything; postmodernists argue they have lost credibility in a fragmented world.
元叙事指声称能解释一切的大一统故事或理论；后现代主义者认为它们在碎片化的世界中已丧失可信度。
Hyperreality (Baudrillard) is a condition in which representations of reality become more 'real' than reality itself, blurring the boundary between image and substance.
超现实（鲍德里亚）指一种现实表征变得比现实本身更“真实”的状态，模糊了形象与实质的界限。
Pick‑and‑mix identity: in postmodern society, individuals construct fluid, hybrid identities by selecting from a range of lifestyles, beliefs, and consumer goods, rather than inheriting fixed roles.
混搭身份：在后现代社会中，个体通过从各种生活方式、信仰和消费品中进行选择来构建流动的混合身份，而非继承固定角色。
Disembeddedness (Giddens) refers to the 'lifting out' of social relations from local contexts and their reorganisation across indefinite spans of time and space, facilitated by global systems.
脱域（吉登斯）指社会关系从地方情境中“抽离”出来，并在跨越无限时空的范围内重组，由全球体系所促成。
Risk society (Beck) describes a stage of modernity where the production of wealth is increasingly overshadowed by the production of manufactured risks, such as environmental hazards.
风险社会（贝克）描述现代性的一个阶段，财富的生产日益被人为风险（如环境公害）的生产所遮蔽。
11. Globalisation and Social Change | 全球化与社会变迁
Globalisation is the intensification of worldwide social relations linking distant localities so that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away.
全球化指世界范围内社会关系的强化，将远距离的各个地方联接起来，使本地事件受到遥远事件的影响。
Glocalisation (Robertson) captures the way global forces are adapted to fit local cultures, producing unique hybrid outcomes rather than simple homogeneity.
全球本地化（罗伯逊）描述全球力量如何被调适以契合本地文化，生成独特的混合结果，而非简单的同质化。
McDonaldisation (Ritzer) applies Weber’s rationalisation to fast‑food culture, characterised by efficiency, calculability, predictability, and control, increasingly dominating many areas of social life.
麦当劳化（瑞泽尔）将韦伯的理性化思想用于快餐文化，其特征是效率、可计算性、可预测性和控制，日益主宰社会生活的诸多领域。
Cultural homogenisation is the thesis that globalisation is leading to a uniform global culture dominated by Western consumerism, undermining local traditions.
文化同质化是全球化的一个论点，指其正在导致一种由西方消费主义主宰的单一全球文化，侵蚀地方传统。
Network society (Castells) describes the new social morphology of the information age, where power is organised through digital networks spanning the globe.
网络社会（卡斯特利斯）描述信息时代的新社会形态，权力通过遍布全球的数字网络被组织起来。
12. Memory Aids for Sociology Terminology | 社会学术语记忆辅助
Use the F-M-F-I-P acronym to recall the main theoretical perspectives: Functionalism, Marxism, Feminism, Interactionism, Postmodernism. Link each with its master concept: consensus, conflict, patriarchy, labelling, metanarrative.
使用缩写F‑M‑F‑I‑P来记忆主要理论视角：功能主义、马克思主义、女性主义、互动论、后现代主义。将每个视角与其核心概念挂钩：共识、冲突、父权制、标签、元叙事。
For research methods, remember V-T-R-O-E: Validity, Triangulation, Reliability, Operationalisation, Ethics. Visualise a pyramid with validity at the top and ethics as the base.
关于研究方法，记住V‑T‑R‑O‑E：效度、三角验证、信度、操作化、伦理。想象一个金字塔，效度在顶端，伦理在底部。
To master crime and deviance, group terms under two branches: causes (anomie, subculture, relative deprivation, labelling, rational choice) and responses (moral panic, deviancy amplification, zero‑tolerance).
掌握犯罪与越轨可将术语分为两个分支：原因（失范、亚文化、相对剥夺、标签、理性选择）和反应（道德恐慌、越轨放大、零容忍）。
Flashcards with the English term on one side and the Chinese definition on the other, combined with an example drawn from a named study or contemporary event, significantly boost recall.
一面写英文术语、另一面写中文定义的卡片，再配上源自具名研究或当代事件的实例，可以显著提升记忆效果。
Practise writing a single paragraph that weaves together five key terms, checking that each is used precisely. This rehearsal deepens understanding and prepares you for extended writing questions.
练习写一个段落，编入五个关键术语并确保使用准确。这样的预演能加深理解，并为长篇问答题做好准备。
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