📚 AQA A-Level Economics Year 13: Key Terms Quick Memorisation Guide | AQA A-Level 经济学（年13）词汇术语速记指南
This Year 13 AQA Economics glossary delivers the essential terms of the second-year specification in paired English-Chinese form. Read each English definition first, then its Chinese counterpart, so that dual-language processing reinforces both conceptual understanding and rapid recall in the exam hall.
本篇 AQA 经济学 Year 13 术语速记指南以英中对译方式覆盖第二年课程的核心概念。请先读英文定义，再读中文对译，用双语加工同时强化概念理解与考场快速回忆能力。
1. Consumer Behaviour and Utility | 消费者行为与效用
Utility is the satisfaction a consumer derives from consuming a good or service. A rational consumer aims to maximise total utility subject to a budget constraint.
效用（Utility）指消费者从消费商品或服务中获得的满足感。理性消费者在预算约束下追求总效用最大化。
Marginal utility (MU) is the additional satisfaction gained from consuming one more unit. The law of diminishing marginal utility states that MU falls as consumption of a good rises, other things equal.
边际效用（MU）指多消费一单位商品所增加的满足感。边际效用递减规律指出，在其他条件不变时，随着消费量增加，MU 会下降。
Total utility he marginal utility per pound spent is equal across all goods, that is MUₐ ÷ Pₐ = MU_b ÷ Pb. This is the equi-marginal principle.
总效用在每一单位支出所带来的边际效用相等时达到最大，即 MUₐ ÷ Pₐ = MU_b ÷ Pb。这就是等边际原则。
An indifference curve shows combinations of two goods giving the same total utility. Its slope is the marginal rate of substitution, and curves are convex to the origin because of diminishing MRS.
无差异曲线表示给消费者带来相同总效用的两种商品组合。其斜率是边际替代率；由于边际替代率递减，曲线凸向原点。
A budget line shows affordable combinations of two goods given income and prices. Utility is maximised where the budget line is tangent to the highest attainable indifference curve.
预算线表示在给定收入与价格下可负担的两种商品组合。当预算线与可达到的最高无差异曲线相切时，效用达到最大。
Consumer surplus is the difference between what a consumer is willing to pay and what they actually pay. It is the area below the demand curve and above the market price.
消费者剩余指消费者愿意支付的最高价格与实际支付价格之间的差额，即需求曲线以下、市场价格以上的面积。
2. Elasticities of Demand and Supply | 需求与供给弹性
Price elasticity of demand (PED) measures the responsiveness of quantity demanded to a change in price.
需求价格弹性（PED）衡量需求量对价格变动的反应程度。
PED = %ΔQd ÷ %ΔP
Demand is price inelastic when |PED| < 1, elastic when |PED| > 1, and unit elastic when |PED| = 1. Firms maximise revenue where PED = −1.
当 |PED| < 1 时需求缺乏弹性；当 |PED| > 1 时需求富有弹性；当 |PED| = 1 时为单位弹性。企业在 PED = −1 处实现收益最大化。
Income elasticity of demand (YED) shows how demand responds to a change in income. Positive YED indicates a normal good, negative YED an inferior good, and YED > 1 a luxury good.
需求收入弹性（YED）反映需求随收入变动的程度。YED 为正表示正常品，为负表示低档品，YED > 1 表示奢侈品。
YED = %ΔQd ÷ %ΔY
Cross elasticity of demand (XED) measures the responsiveness of demand for good A to a price change of good B. Positive XED means substitutes; negative XED means complements.
需求交叉弹性（XED）衡量商品 A 的需求对商品 B 价格变动的反应。XED 为正表示替代品，为负表示互补品。
Price elasticity of supply (PES) measures the responsiveness of quantity supplied to a price change. Supply is more elastic when firms hold spare capacity, when stocks are easily stored, and when the time period is longer.
供给价格弹性（PES）衡量供给量对价格变动的反应程度。当企业存在闲置产能、存货易储存、时间跨度更长时，供给更有弹性。
Key determinants of PED include the number of close substitutes, the proportion of income spent on the good, whether the good is a necessity or a luxury, and the time period considered.
PED 的主要决定因素包括：近似替代品的数量、该商品支出占收入的比重、商品是必需品还是奢侈品，以及所考虑的时间跨度。
3. Costs, Revenue and Profit | 成本、收益与利润
Fixed costs do not vary with output in the short run. Variable costs rise as output increases. Total cost equals fixed cost plus variable cost.
固定成本在短期内不随产量变化；可变成本随产量增加而上升。总成本等于固定成本加可变成本。
Marginal cost (MC) is the addition to total cost from producing one more unit. Average total cost (ATC) equals total cost divided by output.
边际成本（MC）指多生产一单位产品所增加的总成本。平均总成本（ATC）等于总成本除以产量。
Revenue concepts include total revenue, average revenue and marginal revenue. Under perfect competition, average revenue equals marginal revenue equals price, so the firm faces a horizontal demand curve.
收益概念包括总收益、平均收益和边际收益。在完全竞争下，平均收益等于边际收益等于价格，企业面对水平的需求曲线。
The profit-maximising rule is to produce where marginal cost equals marginal revenue, provided MC is rising through that point.
利润最大化法则是在边际成本等于边际收益处生产，且要求该点处 MC 处于上升状态。
Profit = TR − TC; MR = MC
Normal profit is the minimum return needed to keep a firm in the industry and is part of total cost. Supernormal profit is profit above normal profit and attracts new entrants in the long run.
正常利润是使企业留在该行业的必要最低回报，计入总成本；超额利潦指超出正常利润的部分，长期会吸引新企业进入。
Economies of scale are the cost advantages that arise as output rises in the long run, producing a downward-sloping long-run average cost curve. Diseconomies of scale push average cost up.
规模经济是长期产量上升带来的成本优势，使长期平均成本曲线向下倾斜；规模不经济则推高平均成本。
Productive efficiency occurs at minimum average total cost. Allocative efficiency occurs where price equals marginal cost. Dynamic efficiency concerns innovation over time.
生产效率在平均总成本最低点实现；配置效率在价格等于边际成本处实现；动态效率则关注长期创新。
4. Market Structures: Competition and Monopoly | 市场结构：竞争与垄断
Perfect competition assumes many buyers and sellers, homogeneous products, perfect information, free entry and exit, and price-taking firms.
完全竞争假设买者与卖者众多、产品同质、信息完全、自由进出，企业是价格接受者。
A monopoly exists where one firm dominates the market, typically defined as a market share above 25% in UK competition policy. Barriers to entry allow the monopolist to sustain supernormal profit in the long run.
垄断指一家企业主导市场，在英国竞争政策中通常界定为市场份额超过 25%。进入壁垒使垄断者能在长期维持超额利润。
A natural monopoly arises when high fixed costs mean one firm can supply the whole market at lower average cost than two or more firms. This is a case of falling long-run average cost throughout the relevant range of output.
自然垄断源于高固定成本，使一家企业供给整个市场的平均成本低于两家或更多企业。其特点是相关产量范围内长期平均成本持续下降。
Monopoly power means the ability to set price above marginal cost. The Lerner index measures this as (P − MC) ÷ P.
垄断势力指将价格定在边际成本之上的能力。勒纳指数用（P − MC）÷ P 来衡量这一能力。
Price discrimination occurs when a firm charges different prices to different consumers for the same product, requiring market separation and different elasticities of demand.
价格歧视指企业对同一产品向不同消费者收取不同价格，其前提是市场可分割且各市场弹性不同。
Contestable markets have low sunk costs so that the threat of entry alone can force incumbent firms to price competitively, even in a concentrated market.
可竞争市场的沉没成本较低，因此即便市场集中，仅凭潜在进入威胁也能迫使在位企业按竞争方式定价。
5. Oligopoly and Game Theory | 寡头与博弈论
An oligopoly is a market dominated by a few large firms, with high concentration ratios and interdependence between rivals.
寡头指由少数大企业主导的市场，集中度高，竞争者之间相互依存。
The kinked demand curve model explains price rigidity: rivals match price cuts but not price rises, so demand is elastic above the current price and inelastic below it, creating a discontinuity in marginal revenue.
折弯需求曲线模型解释价格刚性：对手会跟随降价但不跟随涨价，因此当前价格以上的需求富有弹性、以下则缺乏弹性，从而在边际收益曲线上形成断点。
Collusion is cooperation between firms to restrict competition. A cartel is a formal agreement to fix prices or output, which is illegal under UK and EU competition law.
串谋指企业之间合作以限制竞争。卡特尔是固定价格或产量的正式协议，在英国与欧盟竞争法下属违法行为。
Tacit collusion occurs without a formal agreement, for example through price leadership or parallel pricing.
默契串谋指没有正式协议的合作，例如价格领导制或平行定价。
The prisoner's dilemma shows that individually rational choices can lead to a collectively inferior outcome. In a duopoly, each firm may be tempted to undercut even though both would gain from colluding.
囚徒困境说明个体理性选择可能导致集体较差结果。在双寡头中，即使双方合作都能获益，每家企业仍可能倾向于降价抢单。
Non-price competition includes branding, advertising, loyalty schemes and product differentiation, and is common in oligopolistic markets where price wars are costly.
非价格竞争包括品牌建设、广告、会员忠诚计划与产品差异化，在价格战代价高昂的寡头市场中尤为常见。
Concentration measures include the four-firm concentration ratio (CR4) and the Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (HHI), which sums the squares of market shares.
集中度指标包括四企业集中度（CR4）与赫芬达尔-赫希曼指数（HHI），后者为各企业市场份额平方之和。
6. The Labour Market and Wage Determination | 劳动力市场与工资决定
The derived demand for labour depends on the demand for the final product. Firms hire labour up to the point where the marginal revenue product equals the wage rate.
劳动力需求是派生需求，取决于最终产品的需求。企业会雇佣劳动直到边际收益产品等于工资率。
MRP = MPP × MR; hire until MRP = W
Elasticity of demand for labour is higher when the wage bill is a large share of total costs, when substitutes such as capital are readily available, and when the product demand is itself elastic.
劳动力需求弹性较高的情况包括：工资支出占总成本比重较大、资本等替代要素易于获得，以及产品本身需求富有弹性。
Monopsony exists where a single buyer of labour faces many sellers. The monopsonist pays a wage below the competitive level and employs fewer workers, creating exploitation of labour.
买方垄断指劳动力市场上只有一个买者、众多卖者。买方垄断者支付低于竞争水平的工资并雇佣更少工人，形成对劳动的剥削。
Bilateral monopoly arises when a monopsonist employer faces a trade union monopoly seller of labour; the outcome depends on relative bargaining power.
双边垄断指买方垄断的雇主面对工会这一劳动力垄断卖方，最终结果取决于双方的相对议价能力。
Economic rent is the payment above the transfer earnings needed to keep a factor in its current use. The more inelastic the supply of a factor, the larger its economic rent.
经济租金指生产要素获得的超过其转移收益的部分。要素供给越缺乏弹性，经济租金越大。
A national minimum wage sets a legal wage floor. It may raise wages for low-paid workers without causing unemployment if employers have monopsony power, but risks job losses in competitive low-wage markets.
全国最低工资设定法定工资下限。若雇主具有买方垄断势力，提高最低工资可能在不造成失业的情况下提升低薪工人收入；但在竞争性低薪市场中则存在失业风险。
7. Market Failure: Externalities and Information | 市场失灵：外部性与信息
Market failure occurs when the free market fails to allocate resources efficiently, so that marginal social cost does not equal marginal social benefit.
市场失灵指自由市场未能有效配置资源，即边际社会成本不等于边际社会收益。
MSC = MPC + MEC; MSB = MPB + MEB
A negative externality is a cost imposed on a third party, such as pollution from production or congestion from driving. It causes over-production relative to the social optimum.
负外部性是强加给第三方的成本，例如生产中的污染或驾驶造成的拥堵，导致产量超过社会最优水平。
A positive externality is a benefit enjoyed by a third party, such as herd immunity from vaccination or knowledge spillovers from education. It causes under-consumption or under-production.
正外部性是第三方获得的收益，例如接种疫苗带来的群体免疫或教育产生的知识溢出，导致消费或生产不足。
A public good is non-rival and non-excludable, such as national defence. It creates the free-rider problem and is under-provided by the market.
公共物品具有非竞争性与非排他性，例如国防。它产生搭便车问题，市场供给不足。
The tragedy of the commons describes over-use of a common-access resource such as fish stocks, because no individual bears the full cost of depletion.
公地悲剧描述渔场等共有资源的过度使用，因为任何个体都不承担资源枯竭的全部成本。
Asymmetric information exists when one party knows more than the other. Adverse selection occurs before a transaction, as in the market for second-hand cars. Moral hazard occurs after, when insured parties take greater risks.
信息不对称指交易一方掌握的信息多于另一方。逆向选择发生在交易之前，如二手车市场；道德风险发生在交易之后，如投保人因有保险而承担更大风险。
8. Inequality, Poverty and Redistribution | 不平等、贫困与再分配
The Lorenz curve plots cumulative percentage of income against cumulative percentage of households. The further it lies from the 45-degree line of perfect equality, the greater the inequality.
洛伦兹曲线以家庭累计百分比为横轴、收入累计百分比为纵轴。曲线离 45 度完全平等线越远，不平等程度越高。
Gini coefficient = A ÷ (A + B)
The Gini coefficient ranges from 0 (perfect equality) to 1 (perfect inequality) and is the most widely used summary measure of income or wealth distribution.
基尼系数取值介于 0（完全平等）与 1（完全不平等）之间，是衡量收入或财富分配最常用的综合指标。
Absolute poverty means income below a fixed subsistence threshold. Relative poverty means income below a proportion of median income, commonly 60% in the UK.
绝对贫困指收入低于固定的生存线；相对贫困指收入低于中位收入的一定比例，英国常用标准为 60%。
Income is a flow of earnings over time, whereas wealth is a stock of accumulated assets. Wealth is far more unequally distributed than income in most economies.
收入是某一时期的所得流量，财富是累积资产的存量。在多数经济体中，财富分配比收入分配更不平等。
A progressive tax takes a larger proportion of income from higher earners, for example through higher marginal rates. A regressive tax takes a larger proportion from lower earners, such as VAT on basic necessities.
累进税对高收入者征收更高比例，例如提高边际税率；累退税对低收入者占比更高，例如对基本生活必需品征收的增值税。
The poverty trap occurs when means-tested benefits are withdrawn as earnings rise, so that the effective marginal tax rate leaves little or no gain from working more hours.
贫困陷阱指随着收入上升，经济状况调查型福利被逐步取消，实际边际税率过高，使多工作几乎无法增加净收入。
9. Macroeconomic Objectives and the Circular Flow | 宏观经济目标与循环流量
Gross domestic product (GDP) measures the value of output produced within a country's borders. Gross national income (GNI) adjusts GDP for net income flows from abroad.
国内生产总值（GDP）衡量一国境内生产的产出价值；国民总收入（GNI）则对 GDP 进行国外净收入流量的调整。
Real versus nominal values: real GDP is adjusted for inflation, nominal GDP is not.
实际值与名义值：实际 GDP 已剔除通胀影响，名义 GDP 未剔除。
Real GDP = Nominal GDP ÷ Price Index × 100
The circular flow of income shows households supplying factors and receiving income, which is spent on goods produced by firms. Injections are investment, government spending and exports; withdrawals are saving, taxation and imports.
收入循环流量显示家庭提供生产要素并获得收入，再用于购买企业生产的商品。注入包括投资、政府支出与出口；漏出包括储蓄、税收与进口。
Equilibrium national income occurs where injections equal withdrawals. If injections exceed withdrawals, national income rises.
国民收入均衡在注入等于漏出时实现。若注入大于漏出，国民收入将上升。
The multiplier shows that an initial change in spending produces a larger final change in national income.
乘数表明支出的初始变动会引起国民收入更大的最终变动。
k = 1 ÷ (1 − MPC) = 1 ÷ (MPS + MPT + MPM)
The output gap is the difference between actual and potential GDP. A negative output gap means spare capacity and downward pressure on inflation; a positive gap means overheating.
产出缺口是实际 GDP 与潜在 GDP 之差。负产出缺口意味着存在闲置产能、通胀面临下行压力；正缺口则意味着经济过热。
The trade cycle describes fluctuations in real GDP around the long-run trend, with phases of boom, downturn, recession and recovery.
经济周期描述实际 GDP 围绕长期趋势的波动，包括繁荣、下行、衰退与复苏各阶段。
10. Inflation, Unemployment and the Phillips Curve | 通胀、失业与菲利普斯曲线
Inflation is a sustained rise in the general price level. It is measured in the UK using the Consumer Prices Index (CPI), a weighted basket of around 700 goods and services.
通货膨胀指一般物价水平的持续上涨。英国常用消费者价格指数（CPI）衡量，其篮子包含约 700 种商品与服务。
Inflation rate = (CPIₜ − CPIₜ₋₁) ÷ CPIₜ₋₁ × 100
Demand-pull inflation arises when aggregate demand grows faster than aggregate supply. Cost-push inflation arises from rising input costs such as wages, energy or imported raw materials.
需求拉动型通胀源于总需求增长快于总供给；成本推动型通胀源于工资、能源或进口原材料等投入成本上升。
Disinflation is a fall in the rate of inflation; deflation is a fall in the price level itself, which raises the real burden of debt.
反通胀指通胀率下降；通缩指物价水平本身下降，会加重实际债务负担。
Types of unemployment include cyclical (demand-deficient), structural (mismatch of skills), frictional (search time), seasonal and real-wage unemployment.
失业类型包括周期性（需求不足型）、结构性（技能不匹配）、摩擦性（寻找工作时间）、季节性以及实际工资性失业。
The natural rate of unemployment, or NAIRU, is the rate consistent with a constant rate of inflation once cyclical effects are removed.
自然失业率（NAIRU）指剔除周期因素后，与稳定通胀率相一致的水平。
The short-run Phillips curve shows an inverse relationship between inflation and unemployment. The long-run Phillips curve is vertical at the natural rate, so there is no permanent trade-off.
短期菲利普斯曲线显示通胀与失业之间的反向关系；长期菲利普斯曲线在自然失业率处垂直，说明二者不存在永久性取舍。
Rational expectations theory argues that if policy is anticipated, workers and firms adjust wage demands immediately, so expansionary policy raises prices without reducing unemployment.
理性预期理论认为，若政策被预见，工人与企业会立即调整工资要求，因此扩张性政策只会推高物价而无法降低失业。
11. Fiscal and Monetary Policy | 财政与货币政策
Fiscal policy uses government spending and taxation to influence aggregate demand and supply. Expansionary fiscal policy raises spending or cuts taxes; contractionary policy does the opposite.
财政政策通过政府支出与税收影响总需求与总供给。扩张性财政政策增加支出或减税；紧缩性政策则相反。
Automatic stabilisers are fiscal mechanisms that dampen the cycle without deliberate action: welfare spending rises and tax receipts fall automatically in a downturn.
自动稳定器指无需刻意决策即可平缓周期的财政机制：衰退时福利支出自动上升、税收自动下降。
A budget deficit is the excess of government spending over revenue in one year; national debt is the accumulated stock of borrowing.
预算赤字指一年内政府支出超过收入的部分；国债是累积的借款存量。
Crowding out occurs when government borrowing pushes up interest rates or uses scarce resources, displacing private investment.
挤出效应指政府借款推高利率或占用稀缺资源，从而排挤私人投资。
Monetary policy is conducted by the Bank of England's Monetary Policy Committee, which sets the Bank Rate to meet a 2% CPI inflation target.
货币政策由英格兰银行货币政策委员会执行，通过设定基准利率以实现 2% 的 CPI 通胀目标。
The transmission mechanism describes how a change in the Bank Rate affects saving, borrowing, asset prices, the exchange rate and confidence, and hence aggregate demand and inflation.
传导机制描述基准利率变动如何影响储蓄、借贷、资产价格、汇率与信心，进而影响总需求和通胀。
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