📚 Summer Preview and Transition Course for Year 12 CAIE Philosophy | CAIE 哲学暑期预习与衔接课程
Starting Year 12 Philosophy is not like beginning another humanities subject. You are not simply learning facts about ancient thinkers or memorising the 'who said what' of intellectual history. Instead, you are stepping into a discipline that trains you to dismantle arguments, interrogate assumptions, and construct rigorous chains of reasoning about the most fundamental questions human beings can ask. The CAIE A Level Philosophy course (code 9479) is demanding precisely because it expects you to do philosophy, not merely to describe it. This summer transition guide is designed to bridge the gap between GCSE habits and the analytical precision required at A Level, giving you the vocabulary, the conceptual frameworks, and the intellectual confidence to engage with philosophical problems from your very first lesson.
开始 Year 12 哲学课程，与开始另一门人文学科的学习截然不同。你并不是在学习关于古代思想家的知识，也不是在记忆思想史上“谁说了什么”。相反，你正在进入一门训练你拆解论证、审视假设、并围绕人类所能提出的最根本问题构建严谨推理链条的学科。CAIE A Level 哲学课程（代码 9479）要求很高，正是因为它期望你去做哲学，而不仅仅是描述哲学。这份暑期衔接指南旨在弥合 GCSE 的学习习惯与 A Level 所需的精确分析之间的差距，为你提供词汇、概念框架和智识信心，让你从第一节课起就能参与哲学问题的探讨。
1. Why Summer Preparation Matters for CAIE Philosophy | 为什么 CAIE 哲学的暑期准备很重要
Many students arrive in their first Year 12 Philosophy lesson expecting a gentle stroll through interesting ideas. The reality is a sharp shock: within the first two weeks, you will be expected to evaluate competing definitions of knowledge, analyse the validity of deductive arguments involving possible worlds, and distinguish between a priori and a posteriori justification. Without prior exposure to the basic structure of philosophical reasoning, students often spend the first half-term struggling to understand what is being asked of them, rather than engaging with the content itself. A well-structured summer preparation does not mean learning the entire syllabus in advance; it means developing the foundational literacy that allows you to access the curriculum immediately. This includes becoming comfortable with the idea that philosophical problems are rarely 'solved' in a definitive sense, but are instead illuminated through careful argument and counter-argument. The CAIE mark schemes reward the ability to weigh competing considerations, recognise strengths and weaknesses in positions, and reach a balanced, justified conclusion — skills that require practice, not just reading.
许多学生走进第一堂 Year 12 哲学课时，期待的是在有趣的想法中轻松漫步。现实则令人猛然惊醒：在最初的两周内，你就需要去评价关于知识的相互竞争的定义，分析涉及可能世界的演绎论证的有效性，并区分先验与后验的辩护。如果没有事先接触过哲学推理的基本结构，学生往往会在前半个学期苦苦挣扎，试图理解题目对他们的要求，而不是真正参与到内容本身之中。精心安排的暑期准备并不意味着提前学完整个教学大纲；它意味着发展基础素养，使你能够立即进入课程。这包括逐渐习惯于这样一个观念：哲学问题很少在确定的意义上被“解决”，而是通过仔细的论证和反驳来加以阐明。CAIE 的评分方案奖励权衡对立因素、识别立场的优缺点并得出平衡、有据的结论的能力——这些技能需要实践，而不仅仅是阅读。
2. Course Structure Overview: What the 9479 Syllabus Contains | 课程结构概览：9479 教学大纲包含什么
The CAIE 9479 syllabus is divided into four papers, but Year 12 typically focuses on Papers 1 and 2. Paper 1 is titled 'Philosophical Questions and Themes' and contains two sections: Section A on epistemology (the theory of knowledge) and Section B on ethics. Paper 2 is titled 'Philosophical Problems' and introduces the philosophy of religion and the philosophy of mind. In Year 12, most schools teach either the full content for Papers 1 and 2, or focus on Paper 1 while beginning to lay groundwork for Paper 2. What distinguishes the CAIE approach from other examination boards is its emphasis on applying philosophical methods to specific problems rather than surveying historical figures. You will study Descartes, Hume, and Mill, but always in the context of particular arguments — not as biographical subjects. Each topic is structured around a central philosophical question, and your job is to understand how different philosophers have answered that question, what arguments they have offered, and whether those arguments survive critical scrutiny. This problem-centred approach means that the syllabus feels more like a series of ongoing debates than a settled body of knowledge.
CAIE 9479 教学大纲分为四份试卷，但 Year 12 通常侧重于试卷 1 和试卷 2。试卷 1 的标题是“哲学问题与主题”，包含两个部分：A 部分关于认识论（知识理论），B 部分关于伦理学。试卷 2 的标题是“哲学问题”，引入了宗教哲学和心灵哲学。在 Year 12，大多数学校要么教授试卷 1 和试卷 2 的全部内容，要么侧重于试卷 1，同时开始为试卷 2 奠定基础。CAIE 方法与其他考试局的区别在于，它强调将哲学方法应用于具体问题，而不是概览历史人物。你将学习笛卡尔、休谟和密尔，但始终是在特定论证的背景下——而不是作为传记主体。每个主题都围绕一个核心哲学问题构建，你的任务是理解不同的哲学家如何回答这个问题，他们提供了什么论证，以及这些论证是否经受得住批判性的审视。这种以问题为中心的方法意味着，教学大纲给人的感觉更像是一系列正在进行的辩论，而不是一个已经解决的知识体系。
3. Epistemology at A Level: Beyond 'Knowing That' | A Level 的认识论：超越“知道”
GCSE students often encounter epistemology as a simple question: 'What is knowledge?' The CAIE syllabus pushes far deeper by asking you to evaluate the tripartite definition of knowledge as justified true belief, and to engage with Gettier-style counterexamples that threaten to undermine it. You will learn to distinguish between different types of knowledge: propositional knowledge (knowing that something is the case), acquaintance knowledge (knowing of a person or place), and practical knowledge (knowing how to do something). The philosophical focus is overwhelmingly on propositional knowledge, and the central challenge is understanding why justification matters — and what counts as adequate justification. This leads into debates between foundationalism, coherentism, and reliabilism about the structure of justification. Students who prepare over the summer should aim to understand the basic Gettier counterexample structure: a person has a belief that is true and for which they have justification, yet the belief is true only by luck, and therefore does not seem to count as knowledge. Grasping why this is a problem for the traditional definition is the gateway to the entire epistemology unit.
GCSE 学生通常将认识论视为一个简单的问题：“什么是知识？”CAIE 教学大纲则深入得多，要求你评价将知识定义为“得到辩护的真信念”的三元定义，并回应可能颠覆它的盖梯尔式反例。你将学会区分不同类型的知识：命题知识（知道某事为真）、亲知知识（熟知某人或某地）和技能知识（知道如何做某事）。哲学的关注点压倒性地集中在命题知识上，核心挑战是理解为什么辩护很重要——以及什么算作充分的辩护。这导向关于辩护结构的基础主义、融贯主义和可靠主义之间的争论。在暑期做准备的学生应致力于理解基本的盖梯尔反例结构：一个人拥有一个为真的信念，并且该信念得到了辩护，然而该信念为真纯粹是由于运气，因此似乎不能算作知识。领会这为什么对传统定义构成问题，是通往整个认识论单元的入口。
4. Ethics: Normative Theories and Applied Judgement | 伦理学：规范理论与应用判断
The ethics component of the CAIE syllabus introduces three major normative theories: utilitarianism, deontology, and virtue ethics. However, the A Level treatment demands far more than simply describing what Bentham or Kant thought. You need to understand the internal logic of each theory — what makes an action right according to each framework — and then apply these theories to concrete moral dilemmas such as lying, stealing, or breaking promises. Furthermore, you must evaluate each theory against standard objections. Utilitarianism, for instance, faces the problem of justice: if torturing an innocent person would maximise overall happiness, the theory seems to require it, which many people find morally repugnant. Deontology, by contrast, seems to generate inflexible rules that can conflict with each other in tragic ways. Virtue ethics offers a different starting point altogether — focusing on character rather than actions — but faces the objection that it does not provide clear action-guidance in difficult cases. The skill CAIE examiners look for is not the ability to rehearse textbook summaries, but the capacity to recognise when a particular objection genuinely threatens a theory and when a defender of that theory might have a plausible response.
CAIE 教学大纲的伦理学部分介绍了三种主要的规范理论：功利主义、义务论和美德伦理学。然而，A Level 的处理所要求的远不止是描述边沁或康德的观点。你需要理解每种理论的内部逻辑——根据每个框架，是什么使一个行为成为正确的——然后将这些理论应用于具体的道德困境，如撒谎、偷窃或违背诺言。此外，你必须对照标准的反对意见来评价每种理论。例如，功利主义面临公正性的问题：如果折磨一个无辜的人能最大化总体幸福，该理论似乎要求这样做，而许多人认为这在道德上令人厌恶。相比之下，义务论似乎产生了一些僵化的规则，这些规则可能以悲剧性的方式相互冲突。美德伦理学则提供了一个完全不同的出发点——关注品格而非行为——但面临它未能为困难情况提供明确行动指引的反对意见。CAIE 考官寻找的技能不是复述教科书摘要的能力，而是识别某个特定反对意见何时真正威胁到一个理论，以及该理论的辩护者何时可能有一个合理的回应。
5. Argument Analysis: The Core Philosophical Skill | 论证分析：核心哲学技能
If there is one skill that distinguishes successful A Level Philosophy students from those who struggle, it is the ability to analyse arguments rather than simply report positions. An argument in philosophy is not a heated exchange; it is a structured set of statements in which some statements (the premises) are offered as reasons to accept another statement (the conclusion). You need to be able to extract arguments from philosophical texts, represent them clearly in your own words, and then evaluate them by asking two questions: (1) Are the premises true or plausible? (2) Do the premises actually support the conclusion — that is, is the inference valid or strong? Students often make the mistake of evaluating only the conclusion, agreeing or disagreeing with it, without examining the reasoning that leads there. CAIE examiners explicitly reward the identification of argument structures and the precise targeting of criticism at specific premises rather than at the overall position. Over the summer, practise this skill by taking any philosophical claim you encounter and asking: what reasons could someone give for this? Are those reasons good ones? What would someone who disagrees say in response?
如果说有一项技能能将成功的 A Level 哲学学生与那些挣扎的学生区分开来，那就是分析论证的能力，而非仅仅报告立场。哲学中的论证不是激烈的争吵；它是一组有结构的陈述，其中某些陈述（前提）被提供作为接受另一个陈述（结论）的理由。你需要能够从哲学文本中提取论证，用自己的话清晰地表达出来，然后通过提出两个问题来评价它们：(1) 前提是否真实或合理？(2) 前提是否真的支持结论——也就是说，推论是否有效或有力？学生常犯的错误是只评价结论，同意或不同意它，而没有审视通向结论的推理过程。CAIE 考官明确奖励识别论证结构以及将批评精确地针对特定前提而非整体立场的能力。在暑假期间，通过处理你遇到的任何哲学主张来练习这项技能：有人能为这个主张提供什么理由？那些理由是好的理由吗？不同意的人会如何回应？
6. Reading Philosophy: How to Approach Primary and Secondary Texts | 阅读哲学：如何对待一手和二手文本
Philosophical texts are not written to be skimmed. A single paragraph of Descartes' 'Meditations' or Mill's 'On Liberty' can contain an argument that requires careful unpacking over multiple readings. One of the biggest adjustments for Year 12 students is learning to read slowly and with active engagement. This means reading with a pen in hand, annotating the text, underlining key premises, noting where the argument takes a turn, and writing questions in the margin. It also means distinguishing between primary texts (original works by philosophers) and secondary texts (explanations and commentaries by scholars). At A Level, you are expected to engage with primary texts as evidence of philosophical positions, but you are not expected to become a Descartes or Hume scholar. The syllabus identifies specific passages and arguments, and your focus should be on understanding those passages in depth rather than reading entire books. For summer preparation, there is no need to purchase original texts; instead, use an A Level textbook or a reliable introductory volume that reproduces and explains the key extracts. The goal is to become comfortable with the experience of reading dense, argumentative prose without becoming discouraged by its difficulty.
哲学文本不是为略读而写的。笛卡尔《第一哲学沉思集》或密尔《论自由》中的一个段落，就可能包含一个需要多次阅读才能仔细拆解的论证。Year 12 学生最大的调整之一是学会慢速阅读并保持积极参与。这意味着阅读时手里拿着笔，在文本上做注释，在关键前提下划线，注意论证的转折点，并在页边空白处写下问题。这也意味着要区分一手文本（哲学家的原创作品）和二手文本（学者的解释和评论）。在 A Level，你需要将一手文本作为哲学立场的证据来对待，但并不要求你成为笛卡尔或休谟研究的学者。教学大纲确定了具体的段落和论证，你的重点应该是深入理解这些段落，而不是通读整本书。对于暑期准备，没有必要购买原著；相反，使用一本 A Level 教科书或可靠的导论性读本，它们会重现并解释关键选段。目标是逐渐适应阅读密集的、论证性散文的体验，而不会因其难度而感到气馁。
7. Key Terminology: Building Your Philosophical Vocabulary | 关键术语：建立你的哲学词汇
Philosophy has a technical vocabulary that can feel like a foreign language to newcomers. Terms like 'a priori', 'analytic', 'synthetic', 'necessary', 'contingent', 'valid', 'sound', and 'begging the question' have precise meanings that differ from their everyday usage. Misunderstanding these terms leads to confusion in both reading and writing. For example, in philosophy, saying an argument is 'valid' does not mean it is good or true; it means only that if the premises were true, the conclusion would have to be true — a purely logical relationship. An argument can be valid but have completely false premises. Similarly, 'begging the question' does not mean 'raising the question'; it refers to a circular argument where the conclusion is assumed in one of the premises. Over the summer, focus on learning the following distinctions: a priori vs. a posteriori (knowledge independent of experience vs. knowledge dependent on experience); analytic vs. synthetic (true by definition vs. true by how the world is); necessary vs. contingent (could not have been otherwise vs. could have been otherwise). These distinctions animate almost every topic in the CAIE syllabus, and mastering them early provides an enormous advantage.
哲学拥有一套技术性词汇，对新手来说可能像一门外语。“先验的”、“分析的”、“综合的”、“必然的”、“偶然的”、“有效”、“可靠”和“窃取论点”这些术语都有精确的含义，与日常用法不同。误解这些术语会导致阅读和写作中的混乱。例如，在哲学中，说一个论证是“有效的”，并不意味着它是好的或正确的；它只意味着如果前提为真，结论就必须为真——这是一种纯粹的逻辑关系。一个论证可以是有效的，却有完全错误的前提。类似地，“窃取论点”并不意味着“引发问题”；它指的是一个循环论证，结论被预设在了前提之中。在暑假期间，重点学习以下区分：先验的与后验的（独立于经验的知识 vs. 依赖于经验的知识）；分析的与综合的（根据定义为真 vs. 因世界如此而为真）；必然的与偶然的（不可能不是这样 vs. 本可以是别样）。这些区分几乎激活了 CAIE 教学大纲中的每一个主题，尽早掌握它们将带来巨大的优势。
8. Writing Philosophy Essays: Structure and Style | 撰写哲学论文：结构与风格
The CAIE assessment is entirely essay-based, and the expectations for philosophical writing are distinct from those in other subjects. A philosophy essay is not a report, a rhetorical exercise, or a display of personal opinion. It is a carefully reasoned argument that engages with a specific question, considers alternative viewpoints, and arrives at a justified conclusion. The structure typically follows this pattern: an introduction that clarifies the question and outlines the argument to come; a section that explains the key concepts or positions relevant to the question; a series of evaluative paragraphs that present arguments and counter-arguments with critical analysis; and a conclusion that does not simply summarise but states a clear, reasoned position. CAIE examiners are looking for clarity, precision, and logical coherence. Avoid flowery language, rhetorical questions, and unsupported assertions. Every claim you make should either be supported by an argument or acknowledged as an assumption. The word 'arguably' is not a substitute for an argument — it signals that you are about to make a claim without justification. Practise writing short paragraphs over the summer that follow this pattern: state a claim, provide a reason for it, consider an objection, and respond to that objection.
CAIE 的评估完全以论文为基础，而哲学写作的期望与其他学科截然不同。一篇哲学论文不是一份报告、一次修辞练习或是个人观点的展示。它是一个经过仔细推理的论证，针对一个具体问题展开，考虑不同的观点，并得出一个有根据的结论。结构通常遵循以下模式：澄清问题并概述即将展开的论证的引言；解释与问题相关的关键概念或立场的段落；一系列包含批判性分析的评估段落，呈现论证和反论证；以及一个不是简单总结，而是陈述明确、有理据的立场的结论。CAIE 考官寻找的是清晰性、精确性和逻辑连贯性。避免华丽的语言、反问句和无支持的断言。你所做的每一个主张，都应该要么得到论证的支持，要么被承认是一种假设。“可以说”这个词并不能代替论证——它标志着你要提出一个没有辩护的主张。在暑期练习撰写遵循这一模式的简短段落：陈述一个主张，为其提供一个理由，考虑一个反对意见，并回应那个反对意见。
9. Common Pitfalls and How to Avoid Them | 常见误区及如何避免
Certain mistakes recur predictably in Year 12 philosophy work, and awareness of them can save months of frustration. The first is treating philosophy as a matter of opinion. While there is room for judgement in philosophy, not all opinions are equal — some are better supported by arguments than others, and the discipline exists to distinguish between the two. Saying 'I feel that utilitarianism is wrong' is not a philosophical contribution; explaining why a particular objection to utilitarianism succeeds or fails is. A second pitfall is the 'shopping list' essay, in which the student simply lists different theories or philosophers without connecting them to the question or to each other. The CAIE mark scheme penalises this severely. A third common error is failing to define key terms. If your essay question is about whether knowledge is justified true belief, you must explain what 'justified' means in this context, and you must recognise that different theories of justification lead to different answers. Finally, many students confuse description with evaluation. Describing what a philosopher said is low-level work; evaluating whether what they said is defensible is what earns marks at A Level.
某些错误在 Year 12 的哲学作品中可以预见地反复出现，意识到它们可以节省数月的挫败感。第一个是将哲学视为个人观点问题。虽然哲学中存在判断的空间，但并非所有观点都是平等的——有些观点比另一些得到了更好的论证支持，这门学科的存在正是为了区分二者。说“我觉得功利主义是错的”并不是一项哲学贡献；解释为什么对功利主义的某个特定反对意见成功或失败才是。第二个误区是“购物清单”式论文，学生只是简单地罗列不同的理论或哲学家，而没有将它们与问题或彼此联系起来。CAIE 的评分方案对此严加扣分。第三个常见错误是未能定义关键术语。如果你的论文题目是关于知识是否是得到辩护的真信念，你必须解释“辩护”在这个语境中意味着什么，并且你必须认识到，不同的辩护理论会导向不同的答案。最后，许多学生将描述与评价相混淆。描述一位哲学家说过什么，是较低层次的工作；评价他们所说的是否站得住脚，才是 A Level 中挣得分数的地方。
10. Summer Reading and Resources: What to Prioritise | 暑期阅读与资源：优先考虑什么
The market for philosophy textbooks is large, but not all resources are equally suited to the CAIE A Level. The most directly relevant textbook is the one endorsed by Cambridge International for the 9479 syllabus, which organises content by topic and includes exam-style questions. For students who want a broader introduction, Nigel Warburton's 'Philosophy: The Basics' is accessible without being simplistic, and it covers epistemology, ethics, philosophy of religion, and philosophy of mind in a clear, argument-focused way. Bryan Magee's 'The Story of Philosophy' provides helpful historical context through dialogues with contemporary philosophers, but should be supplemented with more analytical material. Online, the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy is a free, peer-reviewed resource of the highest quality, though its entries are written at an undergraduate-to-graduate level and should be used selectively. For podcast listeners, 'Philosophy Bites' offers short interviews with professional philosophers on specific topics, many of which align with the CAIE syllabus. Over the summer, aim to read one introductory book and listen to five or six podcast episodes, taking notes on arguments you find interesting and practising restating them in your own words.
哲学教科书的市场很大，但并非所有资源都同样适合 CAIE A Level。最直接相关的教科书是 Cambridge International 为 9479 教学大纲认可的那一本，它按主题组织内容，并包含考试风格的题目。对于希望获得更广泛介绍的学生，Nigel Warburton 的《哲学：基础》既通俗易懂又不流于简单化，它以清晰、论证导向的方式涵盖了认识论、伦理学、宗教哲学和心灵哲学。Bryan Magee 的《哲学的故事》通过与当代哲学家的对话提供了有益的历史背景，但应辅以更多分析性材料。在线上，斯坦福哲学百科全书是一个免费的、同行评审的最高质量资源，尽管其条目是以本科到研究生水平撰写的，应有选择性地使用。对于播客听众来说，“Philosophy Bites”提供专业哲学家就特定主题的简短访谈，其中许多与 CAIE 教学大纲相一致。在暑假期间，目标阅读一本导论书，并收听五六集播客，对你觉得有趣的论证做笔记，并练习用自己的话重新表述它们。
11. Preparing for the Jump: GCSE to A Level Mindset Shift | 为跨越做准备：从 GCSE 到 A Level 的心态转变
The transition from GCSE to A Level involves a qualitative shift in expectations. At GCSE, you were rewarded for demonstrating knowledge and showing some evaluative skill. At A Level, knowledge is assumed, and the assessment focuses on the sophistication of your evaluation. This means you cannot succeed by memorising and reproducing material; you must engage with it actively and critically. The mindset shift involves moving from a consumer of philosophical ideas to a producer of philosophical arguments. This does not mean you need to be original — no one expects an A Level student to produce groundbreaking philosophy — but it does mean you need to take ownership of the debates, forming your own reasoned assessments of the arguments you encounter. Practically, this means asking yourself 'Do I find this argument convincing, and why?' every time you study a position. It means writing out your reasoning in full, not just the conclusion. And it means being willing to change your mind when you encounter a stronger argument. The students who thrive in A Level Philosophy are those who find genuine intellectual pleasure in this process of critical engagement, not those who simply want to be told what to think.
从 GCSE 到 A Level 的过渡包含着期望上质的转变。在 GCSE，你因展示知识和表现出一定的评价技能而得到奖励。在 A Level，知识被认为是理所当然的，评估的重点在于你评价的精细程度。这意味着你不能通过记忆和复现材料来取得成功；你必须积极、批判性地参与其中。这种心态转变涉及从哲学思想的消费者转变为哲学论证的生产者。这并不意味着你需要具有原创性——没有人期望一个 A Level 学生产生开创性的哲学——但这确实意味着你需要掌握这些辩论的主动权，对你遇到的论证形成自己有理据的评估。实际上，这意味着每次学习一个立场时，都要问自己“我觉得这个论证有说服力吗，为什么？”。这意味着要完整写出你的推理，而不仅仅是结论。这也意味着当遇到更强的论证时，愿意改变自己的想法。在 A Level 哲学中茁壮成长的学生，是那些在此批判性参与过程中找到真正的智识乐趣的人，而不是那些只想被告知该思考什么的人。
12. From Philosophy A Level to University and Beyond | 从 A Level 哲学到大学及更远
While many students take A Level Philosophy because they find the questions intrinsically fascinating, it is worth recognising that the subject is also highly respected by universities and employers for the transferable skills it develops. Philosophy trains you to analyse complex information, identify hidden assumptions, construct logical arguments, and communicate with precision. These skills are directly relevant to degrees in law, politics, economics, English literature, and of course philosophy itself. University admissions tutors consistently report that philosophy A Level students tend to write with greater clarity and argue with greater rigour than many of their peers. Beyond university, employers in fields such as law, journalism, public policy, technology, and finance value the analytical training that philosophy provides. The subject teaches you not what to think, but how to think — and that capacity remains valuable long after the specific content of the syllabus has faded from memory. As you prepare over the summer, keep this broader purpose in mind: you are not just preparing for an exam, but equipping yourself with intellectual habits that will serve you across a lifetime of encountering difficult questions and competing claims.
虽然许多学生选择 A Level 哲学是因为他们发现这些问题本身就引人入胜，但值得认识到，这门学科也因其发展的可迁移技能而受到大学和雇主的高度尊重。哲学训练你分析复杂信息、识别隐藏的假设、构建逻辑论证并精确沟通。这些技能与法律、政治、经济、英国文学，当然还有哲学本身的学位直接相关。大学招生导师一致报告说，哲学 A Level 的学生往往比许多同龄人写作更清晰，论证更严谨。在大学之外，法律、新闻、公共政策、技术和金融等领域的雇主都看重哲学提供的分析训练。这门学科教会你的不是思考什么，而是如何思考——而且这种能力在教学大纲的具体内容从记忆中淡去很久之后，依然具有价值。当你在暑期做准备时，请记住这个更广阔的目的：你不仅仅是在为一场考试做准备，而是在为自己配备智识习惯，这些习惯将在你一生中面对困难问题和相互竞争的主张时为你服务。
Published by TutorHao | CAIE Philosophy Revision Series | aleveler.com
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