📚 Year 12 CAIE French: Grammar Formulas and Rules Quick Reference Handbook | Year 12 CAIE 法语：语法公式与规则速查手册
This handbook presents the essential grammar rules of CAIE AS-level French as a collection of concise formulas and theorems. Instead of memorising isolated examples, you can learn the underlying structures that govern verb conjugations, pronoun placement, agreement patterns and sentence construction. Each section provides a core syntactic pattern or morphological rule, followed by practical notes and common exceptions. Mastering these formulas will sharpen both written and spoken accuracy, building a solid foundation for Paper 1 (Speaking), Paper 2 (Reading and Writing), and Paper 3 (Essay) of the CAIE 9716 syllabus.
本手册将 CAIE AS 阶段法语的核心语法规则提炼为一套简洁的公式与定理。你无需死记孤立的例句，而是可以掌握支配动词变位、代词位置、配合规律和句子结构的底层逻辑。每个小节提供一条核心的句法公式或形态规则，并附有实用说明与常见特例。熟练运用这些公式能提升书面和口语的准确性，为 CAIE 9716 课程的口语卷、阅读与写作卷以及论文卷打下坚实基础。
1. Present Tense Regular Verb Endings | 现在时规则动词词尾
The present tense of regular -ER, -IR and -RE verbs follows three distinct sets of endings. Think of them as fixed templates that attach to the verb stem. The stem is obtained by removing the infinitive ending: parl- from parler, fin- from finir, vend- from vendre.
规则动词的现在时变位按照 -ER、-IR 和 -RE 三组不同的词尾模板进行。词干由动词不定式去掉词尾得到：parler → parl-，finir → fin-，vendre → vend-。
-ER formula: stem + e, es, e, ons, ez, ent
-IR formula: stem + is, is, it, issons, issez, issent
-RE formula: stem + s, s, -, ons, ez, ent
For -ER verbs, the final consonant of the stem is silent in the singular forms but pronounced in the plural. Note that -cer verbs add a cedilla before -ons (nous commençons) and -ger verbs keep the -e before -ons (nous mangeons). The -IR group introduces an -iss- infix in the plural persons. The -RE group drops the final -d or -t in the third person singular, leaving no visible ending.
-ER 动词词干末尾辅音在单数人称中不发音，复数人称中发音。需注意 -cer 动词在 nous 人称加软音符 (nous commençons)，-ger 动词在 nous 前保留 -e (nous mangeons)。-IR 组在复数人称中插入 -iss- 中缀。 -RE 组第三人称单数删去末尾 -d 或 -t，词尾为零形式。
2. Key Irregular Verbs: être, avoir, aller, faire | 关键不规则动词：être, avoir, aller, faire
Irregular verbs cannot be generated by regular formulas, yet they act as auxiliary verbs and models for compound tenses. Memorising their full present tense forms is essential. The verb 'être' is used as the auxiliary for a closed set of Dr. & Mrs. Vandertramp verbs in the passé composé and for all reflexive verbs. 'Avoir' serves as the auxiliary for the majority of other verbs.
不规则动词无法通过规则公式生成，但充当助动词和复合时态的模板，必须熟记其全部现在时形式。动词 être 用于 être 助动词清单（即 Dr. & Mrs. Vandertramp 动词）以及所有自反动词的复合过去时；avoir 则是其余动词的助动词。
| Subject | être | avoir | aller | faire |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| je | suis | ai | vais | fais |
| tu | es | as | vas | fais |
| il/elle/on | est | a | va | fait |
| nous | sommes | avons | allons | faisons |
| vous | êtes | avez | allez | faites |
| ils/elles | sont | ont | vont | font |
Note that 'aller' is the only verb with a completely irregular stem in the imperative as well. 'Faire' has the vous form 'faites', which is unique and must not be confused with the second-person plural present of any regular pattern. These four verbs also form the basis of the near future (aller + infinitive) and the recent past (venir de + infinitive).
请注意 'aller' 是唯一命令式词干也完全不规则的动词。 'faire' 的 vous 形式 'faites' 独一无二，切勿与任何规则模式混淆。这四个动词还构成最近将来时 (aller + 不定式) 和最近过去时 (venir de + 不定式) 的基础。
3. Passé Composé Formation Formula | 复合过去时构成公式
Passé Composé Formula: Auxiliary verb (avoir or être) + past participle
The choice of auxiliary is determined by the main verb. Most transitive verbs use 'avoir'. A closed set of intransitive verbs indicating movement or change of state (monter, descendre, aller, venir, arriver, partir, entrer, sortir, naître, mourir, rester, tomber, retourner, etc.) plus all reflexive verbs require 'être'. When 'être' is the auxiliary, the past participle agrees in gender and number with the subject.
助动词的选择取决于主要动词。大多数及物动词使用 avoir。一组表示移动或状态变化的不及物动词（如 monter, descendre, aller, venir, arriver, partir, entrer, sortir, naître, mourir, rester, tomber, retourner 等）以及所有自反动词要求使用 être。使用 être 作助动词时，过去分词需要与主语在性和数上配合。
Past participle formation rules: -ER verbs → -é (parler → parlé n verbs have irregular past participles that must be learned by heart, such as avoir → eu, être → été → fait, prendre → pris, mettre → mis, voir → vu, pouvoir → pu, vouloir → voulu, devoir → dû, savoir → su, connaître → connu, lire → lu, écrire → écrit, ouvrir → ouvert, offrir → offert, etc.
过去分词构成规则：-ER 动词 → -é；-IR 动词 → -i；-RE 动词 → -u。大量常用动词具有不规则过去分词，必须逐一记忆，例如 avoir → eu，être → été，faire → fait，prendre → pris，mettre → mis，voir → vu，pouvoir → pu，vouloir → voulu，devoir → dû，savoir → su，connaître → connu，lire → lu，écrire → écrit，ouvrir → ouvert，offrir → offert 等。
In negative sentences, the negation wraps around the auxiliary verb: ne + auxiliary + pas + past participle. When direct object pronouns precede the verb, the past participle agrees with that preceding direct object even if the auxiliary is 'avoir': Les pommes que j'ai mangées.
在否定句中，否定结构包裹助动词：ne + 助动词 + pas + 过去分词。当直接宾语代词前置时，即使助动词是 avoir，过去分词也需与前置直接宾语配合：Les pommes que j'ai mangées。
4. Imparfait Formation and Usage | 未完成过去时构成与用法
Imparfait Formula: nous-form stem of present tense + -ais, -ais, -ait, -ions, -iez, -aient
The imparfait stem is always derived from the 'nous' form of the present indicative by removing the -ons ending. This rule works for all verbs except être, whose stem is 'ét-'. The endings are identical across all verb groups.
未完成过去时词干永远由直陈式现在时 nous 形式去掉 -ons 构成。这一规则适用于除 être 之外的所有动词，être 的词干为 'ét-'。所有动词组的词尾完全一致。
| Verb | nous form | stem | je form |
|---|---|---|---|
| parler | parlons | parl- | je parlais |
| finir | finissons | finiss- | je finissais |
| vendre | vendons | vend- | je vendais |
| avoir | avons | av- | j'avais |
| être | sommes | ét- | j'étais |
The imparfait is used for description, habitual actions, ongoing background states and mental attitudes in the past. It often sets the scene when combined with the passé composé, which expresses a single completed action. In si-clauses, the imparfait follows 'si' to express a hypothetical condition with the conditional in the main clause.
未完成过去时用于描写、习惯动作、过去持续存在的背景状态以及心理态度。它常与表达一次性完成动作的复合过去时搭配，提供过去场景。在 si 引导的条件句中，未完成过去时表示假设条件，主句使用条件式。
5. Future and Conditional Stems | 简单将来时与条件式词干
Future Simple Formula: whole infinitive + -ai, -as, -a, -ons, -ez, -ont
Conditional Formula: same stem + -ais, -ais, -ait, -ions, -iez, -aient
endrai). A number of common verbs have irregular future stems that must be memorised: aller → ir-, avoir → aur-, ê r-, venir → viendr-, voir → verr-, vouloir → voudr-, falloir → faudr-, pleuvoir → pleuvr-.
规则 -ER 和 -IR 动词的将来时词干就是动词不定式本身。-RE 动词需去掉末尾 -e 再加词尾 (vendre → je vendrai)。一系列常用动词拥有不规则的将来时词干，必须熟记：aller → ir-，avoir → aur-，être → ser-，faire → fer-，pouvoir → pourr-，devoir → devr-，savoir → saur-，venir → viendr-，voir → verr-，vouloir → voudr-，falloir → faudr-，pleuvoir → pleuvr-。
The conditional uses exactly the same stem as the future simple, which is why learning them in pairs is efficient. The conditional expresses politeness, a suggestion, a hypothetical result, or a future-in-the-past. In reported speech, when the introductory verb is in a past tense, the future is replaced by the conditional.
条件式的词干与简单将来时完全相同，因此成对学习效率最高。条件式表达礼貌、建议、假设的结果或过去中的将来。在间接引语中，当主句动词为过去时态时，简单将来时转换为条件式。
6. Subjunctive Triggers and Formation | 虚拟式触发词与构成
Subjunctive Formation: stem from ils/elles form of present tense + -e, -es, -e, -ions, -iez, -ent
The present subjunctive stem for most verbs comes from the third-person plural of the present indicative minus the -ent ending. The nous and vous forms match the imparfait endings -ions, -iez, producing forms like que nous parlions, que vous parliez. Irregular verbs often have two stems: one for je/tu/il/ils and another for nous/vous. Verbs like être (que je sois, que nous soyons), avoir (que j'aie, que nous ayons), aller (que j'aille, que nous allions), faire (que je fasse, que nous fassions), pouvoir (que je puisse, que nous puissions), savoir (que je sache, que nous sachions) must be learned individually.
多数动词的现在时虚拟式词干源自直陈式现在时第三人称复数去掉 -ent。nous 和 vous 形式与未完成过去时的词尾 -ions、-iez 一致，例如 que nous parlions, que vous parliez。不规则动词常拥有两个词干：je/tu/il/ils 使用一个，nous/vous 使用另一个。être (que je sois, que nous soyons), avoir (que j'aie, que nous ayons), aller (que j'aille, que nous allions), faire (que je fasse, que nous fassions), pouvoir (que je puisse, que nous puissions), savoir (que je sache, que nous sachions) 等需逐一熟记。
The subjunctive is triggered after certain conjunctions (bien que, pour que, avant que, à condition que, quoique, sans que) and after expressions of emotion, doubt, necessity, desire, and possibility when the subject of the dependent clause differs from that of the main clause. Common triggers include: il faut que, je veux que, je doute que, il est important que, je suis content(e) que, il est possible que, je crains que. After verbs of opinion and certainty (penser, croire, il est certain que) used affirmatively, the indicative is used; in the negative or interrogative, they can trigger the subjunctive.
虚拟式在特定连词 (bien que, pour que, avant que, à condition que, quoique, sans que) 以及表达情感、怀疑、必要性、愿望和可能性的主句动词后触发，且从句主语与主句不同。常见触发词包括：il faut que, je veux que, je doute que, il est important que, je suis content(e) que, il est possible que, je crains que。表示观点和确定性的动词 (penser, croire, il est certain que) 在肯定式中使用直陈式；在否定或疑问式中可触发虚拟式。
7. Direct and Indirect Object Pronouns Order | 直接/间接宾语代词顺序
Pronoun Order Formula: me/te/se/nous/vous → le/la/les → lui/leur → y → en
ears before the verb, they must follow a strict sequence. The formula can be remembered as ' n direct objects, then third-person indirect objects, then the adverbial pronouns y and en' la/les → moi/toi/lui/nous/vous/leur → y → en (with moi and toi used instead of me and te).
当一个以上的宾语代词出现在动词前时，必须遵循严格的顺序。该顺序可记为：先自反/第一第二人称代词，再第三人称直接宾语，再第三人称间接宾语，再副代词 y 和 en。在肯定命令式中，顺序改变：代词位于动词之后并用连字符连接，顺序变为 le/la/les → moi/toi/lui/nous/vous/leur → y → en（moi, toi 替代 me, te）。
Examples: Je le lui donne. (I give it to him.) Il m'en a parlé. (He spoke to me about it.) Ne me le donne pas. (Don't give it to me.) Donne-le-moi ! (Give it to me!) In compound tenses, these pronouns come before the auxiliary, and the past participle may need agreement with a preceding direct object pronoun.
例句：Je le lui donne. Il m'en a parlé. Ne me le donne pas. Donne-le-moi ! 在复合时态中，这些代词位于助动词之前，过去分词可能需要与前置的直接宾语代词配合。
8. Relative Pronouns: qui, que, dont, lequel | 关系代词：qui, que, dont, lequel
Relative pronouns link a dependent clause to a main clause and replace a previously mentioned noun. The choice depends on the grammatical function of the missing element in the relative clause. Use 'qui' when the pronoun is the subject of the clause. Use 'que' when it is the direct object. 'Dont' replaces a noun introduced by 'de' and can mean whose, of which, about which. 'Lequel' (agreeing in gender and number: lequel, laquelle, lesquels, lesquelles) is used after prepositions other than 'de' and as the object of compound prepositions.
关系代词将从句与主句连接，并替代前面提到的一个名词。选用哪个关系代词取决于该代词在从句中的语法功能。作从句主语时用 qui，作直接宾语时用 que。 dont 替代由 de 引导的名词，可表示 whose、of which、about which。 lequel 需与先行词在性和数上配合，用于 de 以外的介词之后以及复合介词宾语。
Formula: preposition + lequel/laquelle/lesquels/lesquelles (+ contracted forms: auquel, duquel, etc.)
Examples: La femme qui parle est ma tante. Le livre que je lis est passionnant. L'homme dont je te parle est médecin. La chaise sur laquelle je suis assis est confortable. Note that 'ce qui' and 'ce que' are used when the relative pronoun has no explicit antecedent: Ce qui m'inquiète, c'est son silence.
例如：La femme qui parle est ma tante. Le livre que je lis est passionnant. L'homme dont je te parle est médecin. La chaise sur laquelle je suis assis est confortable. 注意，当关系代词没有明确先行词时，使用 ce qui 或 ce que：Ce qui m'inquiète, c'est son silence.
9. Adjective Agreement Rules | 形容词配合规则
Basic Formula: adjective = masculine singular form + -e (feminine) + -s (plural)
The default rule is that adjectives agree in gender and number with the noun they modify. To form the feminine, an -e is added to the masculine form. If the masculine already ends in -e, there is no change. To form the plural, an -s is added to the singular form; if the singular already ends in -s or -x, no change is made. There are numerous irregular patterns.
基本规则是形容词与所修饰的名词在性和数上配合。构成阴性形式时，在阳性形式后加 -e。若阳性形式本身以 -e 结尾，则不变。构成复数时，在单数形式后加 -s；若单数形式已以 -s 或 -x 结尾，则不变。存在大量不规则变化。
| Masculine singular | Feminine singular | Masculine plural | Feminine plural | Pattern |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| grand | grande | grands | grandes | regular |
| heureux | heureuse | heureux | heureuses | -x → -se |
| bon | bonne | bons | bonnes | doubled consonant |
| beau | belle | beaux | belles | special forms |
Some adjectives precede the noun (BAGS: Beauty, Age, Goodness, Size), while most follow. Position can alter meaning: mon ancien professeur (former) vs un monument ancien (ancient). Compound colours and borrowed adjectives are invariable. The adjective tout follows a unique agreement pattern.
部分形容词前置（如 BAGS 类别：美、龄、善、尺），多数后置。位置不同意义可能改变：mon ancien professeur (以前的) vs un monument ancien (古老的)。复合颜色词及借入形容词无变化。形容词 tout 有其独特的配合规则。
10. Negation Structures | 否定结构
Basic Negation Formula: ne + conjugated verb + pas
In simple tenses, ne and pas surround the conjugated verb. In compound tenses, they surround the auxiliary verb. When the subject is a pronoun, ne becomes n' before a vowel. Other negative expressions replace 'pas' to express different nuances: ne...jamais (never), ne...plus (no longer), ne...rien (nothing), ne...personne (nobody), ne...que (only, restriction), ne...aucun(e) (no, none), ne...ni...ni (neither ... nor).
在简单时态中，ne 和 pas 包围变位动词。在复合时态中，它们包围助动词。主语为代词时，ne 在元音前省音为 n'。其余否定结构以不同词语替换 pas，表达不同细微含义：ne...jamais (从不), ne...plus (不再), ne...rien (没有什么), ne...personne (无人), ne...que (仅仅), ne...aucun(e) (没有任何), ne...ni...ni (既不...也不)。
With the negative pronoun 'personne' and 'rien', the word order in compound tenses is: ne + auxiliary + pas + past participle + personne/rien. However, 'personne' can also act as a subject: Personne n'est venu. 'Rien' can stand as subject: Rien n'est impossible. The restrictive 'ne...que' places 'que' immediately before the element to be restricted.
否定代词 personne 和 rien 在复合时态中的顺序为：ne + 助动词 + pas + 过去分词 + personne/rien。然而，personne 也可作主语：Personne n'est venu. rien 可作主语：Rien n'est impossible. 限制结构 ne...que 中的 que 置于被限制成分前紧挨位置。
11. Partitive Articles and Expressions of Quantity | 部分冠词与数量表达
Partitive Formula: de + definite article = du, de la, de l', des
The partitive article expresses an unspecified quantity of a mass noun or an abstract concept. It is formed by combining the preposition 'de' with the appropriate definite article. 'Du' (de + le) is used before masculine singular nouns, 'de la' before feminine singular nouns, 'de l'' before vowels or mute h, and 'des' (de + les) before plural nouns. It is often translated as 'some' or 'any' in English, but in French it is compulsory where quantity is undefined.
部分冠词表达不可数名词或抽象
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