📚 Year 12 CAIE Psychology: Core Concepts Review | Year 12 CAIE 心理学：核心知识点梳理
A solid grasp of core concepts is essential for success in the Year 12 CAIE Psychology (9990) syllabus. This article distils the fundamental knowledge across research methods, biological, cognitive, learning and social approaches, presenting key theories, studies and terminology in a structured bilingual format.
扎实掌握核心概念对于在 Year 12 CAIE 心理学 (9990) 课程中取得成功至关重要。本文提炼了研究方法、生物心理学、认知心理学、学习心理学和社会心理学的基础知识，以结构化的双语形式呈现关键理论、研究和术语。
1. Research Methods and Experimental Design | 研究方法与实验设计
Every psychological investigation begins with an aim and a hypothesis. An experimental hypothesis predicts the effect of the independent variable (IV) on the dependent variable (DV).
每项心理学研究都始于目的和假设。实验假设预测自变量 (IV) 对因变量 (DV) 的影响。
The independent variable is the factor that the researcher manipulates, and the dependent variable is the factor that is measured.
自变量是研究者操纵的因素，而因变量是被测量的因素。
Operationalisation means defining variables in measurable terms so they can be tested empirically. For instance, 'aggression' could be operationalised as the number of times a participant shouts or presses a shock button.
操作化是指用可测量的术语定义变量，以便进行实证检验。例如，“攻击性”可以操作化为参与者喊叫或按下电击按钮的次数。
Three common experimental designs are independent groups, repeated measures, and matched pairs.
三种常见的实验设计是独立组设计、重复测量设计和匹配对设计。
| Design | Description | Strength | Weakness |
|---|---|---|---|
| Independent groups | Different participants in each condition | No order effects; participants are naive | Participant variables may confound results |
| Repeated measures | Same participants take part in all conditions | Controls participant variables; fewer participants needed | Order effects (practice, fatigue) can occur; demand characteristics |
| Matched pairs | Pairs of participants matched on relevant traits; one per condition | Reduces participant variables; avoids order effects | Matching is imperfect and time‑consuming |
The table above outlines the main designs used in experiments. To keep extraneous variables constant, researchers use controls such as counterbalancing (in repeated measures), random allocation, and standardised instructions.
上表概述了实验中主要使用的设计。为控制无关变量，研究者使用诸如抵消平衡（在重复测量中）、随机分配和标准化指导语等控制手段。
A confounding variable is an extraneous variable that systematically changes with the IV and offers an alternative explanation for findings. Careful design minimises confounding variables.
混淆变量是一种与自变量系统变化并对结果提供替代解释的无关变量。严谨的设计可以最大程度减少混淆变量。
Experiments are classified by where and how they are conducted: laboratory (high control, artificial), field (real-world setting, higher ecological validity), natural (IV occurs naturally, no manipulation), and quasi (participants group on existing differences, e.g. gender).
实验根据地点和方式进行分类：实验室实验（高控制，人为性），现场实验（真实环境，更高的生态效度），自然实验（自变量自然发生，无操纵），准实验（参与者基于现有差异分组，如性别）。
Validity refers to whether a study measures what it claims to measure. Internal validity concerns the degree to which findings can be attributed to the IV; external validity refers to generalisability to other settings and populations. Ecological validity is a subset of external validity, reflecting how well procedures mirror real life.
效度指研究是否测量了它声称要测量的内容。内部效度关乎研究发现在多大程度上可归因于自变量；外部效度指研究结果推广到其他环境和人群的程度。生态效度是外部效度的一个子集，反映了研究程序在多大程度上模拟了真实生活。
Reliability is about consistency. Replicating a study with the same results demonstrates high reliability, which can be checked through test–retest and inter‑rater methods.
信度是关于一致性。重复一项研究并获得相同结果证明了高信度，这可通过重测信度和评分者信度来检验。
Ethical guidelines require researchers to obtain informed consent, allow the right to withdraw, ensure confidentiality, protect participants from harm, and provide a full debrief. Deception should be avoided unless essential and justified.
伦理准则要求研究者获取知情同意、允许退出权利、确保保密性、保护参与者免受伤害，并提供全面的事后解释。除非必要且合理，否则应避免欺骗。
2. Biological Approach – Neurons and Synaptic Transmission | 生物心理学：神经元与突触传递
The nervous system is built from neurons, including sensory, motor and relay neurons. Each neuron has dendrites, a cell body, an axon insulated by a myelin sheath, and terminal buttons.
神经系统由神经元构成，包括感觉神经元、运动神经元和联络神经元。每个神经元有树突、细胞体、被髓鞘包裹的轴突以及终扣。
An action potential travels along the axon when the inside of the neuron becomes depolarised. The signal is all‑or‑nothing and moves via saltatory conduction along myelinated axons.
当神经元内部去极化时，动作电位沿轴突传播。该信号是全或无的，并沿着有髓鞘的轴突通过跳跃传导前进。
At the synapse, neurotransmitters are released from vesicles in the presynaptic terminal and diffuse across the synaptic cleft. They bind to receptor sites on the postsynaptic membrane, causing either excitation (EPSP) or inhibition (IPSP).
在突触处，神经递质从前突触末端的囊泡中释放，扩散穿过突触间隙。它们与后突触膜上的受体位点结合，引起兴奋（EPSP）或抑制（IPSP）。
Agonists mimic or enhance a neurotransmitter's action, whereas antagonists block receptor sites. For instance, nicotine acts as an agonist for acetylcholine, while curare is an antagonist.
激动剂模仿或增强神经递质的作用，而拮抗剂阻断受体位点。例如，尼古丁是乙酰胆碱的激动剂，而箭毒是拮抗剂。
3. Biological Approach – Brain and Behaviour | 生物心理学：大脑与行为
Localisation of function means that specific brain areas control particular behaviours. Broca's area, in the left frontal lobe, is linked to speech production; damage results in Broca's aphasia (halting, non‑fluent speech). Wernicke's area, in the left temporal lobe, is vital for language comprehension; Wernicke's aphasia produces fluent but meaningless speech.
功能局部化意味着特定脑区控制特定行为。布罗卡区位于左额叶，与言语产生相关；受损导致布罗卡失语症（断断续续、不流利的言语）。韦尼克区位于左颞叶，对语言理解至关重要；韦尼克失语症产生流利但无意义的言语。
Brain imaging techniques provide evidence for localisation. fMRI detects blood‑flow changes and gives high spatial resolution; PET uses radioactive tracers to map metabolic activity; EEG records electrical activity with excellent temporal resolution.
脑成像技术为功能局部化提供了证据。功能性磁共振成像检测血流变化，提供高空间分辨率；正电子发射断层扫描使用放射性示踪剂描绘代谢活动；脑电图记录电活动，具有极好的时间分辨率。
Neuroplasticity refers to the brain's ability to reorganise itself by forming new neural connections. Maguire et al. (2000) found that London taxi drivers had larger posterior hippocampi, correlated with their navigational experience.
神经可塑性指大脑通过形成新的神经连接来重组自身的能力。Maguire 等人(2000)发现伦敦出租车司机的后海马体积更大，与他们的导航经验相关。
Twin studies compare monozygotic (MZ) and dizygotic (DZ) twins to estimate the relative contribution of genetics and environment. Higher concordance rates in MZ twins for a trait suggest a strong genetic influence.
双胞胎研究比较同卵双胞胎（MZ）和异卵双胞胎（DZ），以估计遗传和环境的相对贡献。如果某一性状在同卵双胞胎中呈现出更高的一致率，则表明存在强大的遗传影响。
4. Cognitive Approach – Models of Memory | 认知心理学：记忆模型
The multi‑store model (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968) proposes three separate stores: sensory register, short‑term memory (STM) and long‑term memory (LTM). The sensory register holds large amounts of information briefly; attention transfers selected items to STM.
多存储模型（Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968）提出三个独立存储系统：感觉登记、短时记忆 (STM) 和长时记忆 (LTM)。感觉登记短暂容纳大量信息；注意将选中的项目转移到短时记忆中。
STM has a limited capacity (7 ± 2 items) and duration (around 18– can transfer it to LTM, which has unlimited capacity and duration, encoding semantically.
短时记忆的容量有限（7 ± 2 个项目），持续时间较短（约18‑30秒），编码主要为听觉形式。复述可以维持短时记忆中的信息，并能将其转移到长时记忆中，长时记忆容量和持续时间无限，主要进行语义编码。
Baddeley and Hitch's working memory model (1974) replaces the idea of a single STM with a multi‑component system: the central executive (attentional control), phonological loop (verbal/acoustic processing), visuo‑spatial sketchpad (visual/spatial), and episodic buffer (integrates information).
Baddeley 和 Hitch 的工作记忆模型 (1974) 用一个多成分系统取代了单一短时记忆的观点：中央执行器（注意力控制）、语音环路（言语/听觉加工）、视空间画板（视觉/空间）和情景缓冲器（整合信息）。
Dual‑task studies support the WMM. Participants can perform one visual and one verbal task simultaneously without much interference, but two similar tasks interfere with each other, showing separate slave systems.
双任务研究支持工作记忆模型。参与者可以在没有过多干扰的情况下同时执行一项视觉任务和一项言语任务，但两个相似任务会相互干扰，表明独立的从属系统。
| Feature | Multi‑store model | Working memory model |
|---|---|---|
| STM described as | Unitary, passive store | Multiple active components |
| Emphasis | Structural stores and transfer via rehearsal | Processing of different information types |
| Evidence | Serial position effect, case studies (HM) | Dual‑task experiments, case of KF |
The table above compares the two cognitive models of memory, highlighting their different explanations of short‑term processing.
上表比较了两种认知记忆模型，突显了它们对短时加工的不同解释。
5. Cognitive Approach – Forgetting and Eyewitness Testimony | 认知心理学：遗忘与目击证词
Trace decay theory suggests memories fade spontaneously if not rehearsed, but it fails to explain why some forgotten memories are later re‑retrieved. Interference theory proposes that forgetting occurs because similar memories disrupt each other – either proactively (old interferes with new) or retroactively (new interferes with old).
痕迹消退理论认为如果不复述，记忆会自行消退，但它无法解释为何有些被遗忘的记忆后来能重新提取。干扰理论提出遗忘是由于相似记忆相互干扰——要么是前摄干扰（旧记忆干扰新记忆），要么是倒摄干扰（新记忆干扰旧记忆）。
Retrieval failure occurs when information is available in LTM but cannot be accessed due to a lack of cues. This is illustrated by the tip‑of‑the‑tongue phenomenon and context‑dependent forgetting.
提取失败发生在信息存在于长时记忆中，但由于缺乏线索而无法提取时。舌尖现象和情境依赖遗忘就说明了这一点。
Eyewitness testimony can be distorted by leading questions. Loftus and Palmer (1974) showed that changing the verb in 'How fast were the cars going when they hit/smashed into each other?' affected speed estimates and the recall of broken glass.
目击证词可能被引导性问题扭曲。Loftus 和 Palmer (1974) 表明，改变“当汽车相撞/猛撞在一起时，车速有多快？”中的动词会影响速度估计和对碎玻璃的记忆。
Post‑event discussion and media reports can introduce misinformation, contaminating a witness's original memory. Anxiety and weapon focus also impair recall because attention is drawn to the weapon rather than the perpetrator's face.
事后讨论和媒体报道会引入错误信息，污染证人的原始记忆。焦虑和武器聚焦也会损害回忆，因为注意力被引向武器而非肇事者的脸。
6. Learning Approach – Classical Conditioning | 学习心理学：经典条件反射
Classical conditioning, discovered by Pavlov, involves learning through association. An unconditioned stimulus (UCS) like food naturally elicits an unconditioned response (UCR) of salivation. A neutral stimulus (NS) such as a bell does not initially trigger salivation.
经典条件反射由巴甫洛夫发现，涉及通过关联进行学习。非条件刺激 (UCS) 如食物，自然会引发唾液分泌的非条件反应 (UCR)。中性刺激 (NS) 如铃声，最初不会引发唾液分泌。
During conditioning the NS is presented together with the UCS repeatedly. After acquisition the NS becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) that alone produces a conditioned response (CR) similar to the UCR.
在条件反射建立过程中，中性刺激与非条件刺激反复同时出现。习得后，中性刺激变成条件刺激 (CS)，单独呈现便能引发类似于非条件反应的条件反应 (CR)。
Extinction happens when the CS is presented repeatedly without the UCS, causing the CR to weaken. Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of a CR after a rest period. Generalisation occurs when stimuli similar to the CS also elicit the CR; discrimination is learning to respond only to the original CS.
当条件刺激多次在没有非条件刺激的情况下呈现时，会发生消退，导致条件反应减弱。自发恢复是指休息一段时间后条件反应重新出现。泛化指类似于条件刺激的刺激也能引发条件反应；分辨则是学会仅对原始条件刺激做出反应。
A famous, though ethically controversial, demonstration of classical conditioning in humans is Watson and Rayner's (1920) 'Little Albert' study, where a white rat (CS) was paired with a loud noise (UCS) to condition a fear response (CR).
一个虽然存在伦理争议但著名的人类经典条件反射演示是 Watson 和 Rayner (1920) 的“小阿尔伯特”研究，白鼠 (CS) 与巨大声响 (UCS) 配对，最终形成了恐惧反应 (CR)。
7. Learning Approach – Operant Conditioning | 学习心理学：操作条件反射
Operant conditioning, developed by B.F. Skinner, is learning through consequences. Behaviours are voluntary and are shaped and maintained by reinforcement and punishment.
操作条件反射由 B.F. Skinner 提出，是通过结果进行学习。行为是主动的，通过强化和惩罚得以塑造和维持。
Positive reinforcement increases a behaviour by adding a pleasant stimulus; negative reinforcement increases behaviour by removing an unpleasant stimulus. Both types of reinforcement strengthen the response. Punishment, conversely, aims to decrease behaviour.
正强化通过添加愉悦刺激来增加行为；负强化通过移除不愉快刺激来增加行为。两种强化都增强反应。相反，惩罚旨在减少行为。
Schedules of reinforcement influence how quickly learning occurs and how resistant a behaviour is to extinction. Continuous reinforcement leads to rapid acquisition but quick extinction, whereas partial schedules (fixed/variable ratio or interval) produce slower acquisition but greater resistance to extinction.
强化程式影响学习的速度以及行为对消退的抵抗力。连续强化导致快速习得但快速消退，而部分强化程式（固定/可变比率或间隔）导致习得较慢，但对消退的抵抗力更强。
Skinner demonstrated shaping, reinforcing successive approximations of a target behaviour, in his Skinner box experiments with rats and pigeons. Operant conditioning has practical applications in behaviour modification and token economy systems.
斯金纳通过他的斯金纳箱实验，用老鼠和鸽子演示了塑造——强化目标行为的逐步接近。操作条件反射在行为矫正和代币制中有实际应用。
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