📚 Year 12 AQA Chemistry: Rapid Memorisation Guide to Key Terminology | AQA化学关键术语速记指南
Mastering precise scientific vocabulary is essential for success in Year 12 AQA Chemistry. This guide groups key terms by topic, uses mnemonics, word roots and visual memory hooks, and presents every English term immediately followed by its Chinese explanation. Active recall of these terms will boost your confidence in exams and practical work.
掌握精确的科学词汇是 Year 12 AQA 化学成功的关键。本指南按主题将关键术语分组，利用助记法、词根和视觉记忆挂钩，每个英文术语后紧跟中文解释。积极回忆这些术语将增强你在考试和实验工作中的信心。
1. Atomic Structure Terminology | 原子结构术语
Atomic number (Z) – the number of protons in the nucleus; it defines the element.
原子序数（Z） – 原子核中的质子数，它决定了元素的种类。
Mass number (A) – the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
质量数（A） – 原子核中质子与中子的总数。
Isotopes – atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different number of neutrons. Think 'iso-' (same) + 'topos' (place) – same position in the periodic table.
同位素 – 同一元素中质子数相同而中子数不同的原子。记忆词根 'iso-'（相同）和 'topos'（位置）—— 在周期表中占据同一位置。
Relative atomic mass (Aᵣ) – the weighted mean mass of an atom of an element compared to 1/12th the mass of a carbon‑12 atom.
相对原子质量（Aᵣ） – 元素一个原子的加权平均质量与一个碳‑12 原子质量的 1/12 的比值。
First ionisation energy – the energy required to remove one mole of electrons from one mole of gaseous atoms to form one mole of gaseous 1+ ions.
X(g) → X⁺(g) + e⁻
第一电离能 – 从一摩尔气态原子中移去一摩尔电子，形成一摩尔气态一价正离子所需的能量。
X(g) → X⁺(g) + e⁻
Orbital – a region around the nucleus that can hold up to two electrons with opposite spins. s‑orbitals are spherical, p‑orbitals are dumbbell‑shaped.
轨道 – 原子核周围可以容纳最多两个自旋相反电子的区域。s 轨道为球形，p 轨道为哑铃形。
Electron configuration – the arrangement of electrons in shells and sub‑ 2s² 2p². Remember the Aufbau order: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d ... Use the periodic table as a guide.
电子排布 – 电子在壳层和亚壳层中的排列方式。例如碳 (Z=6) 的排布为 1s² 2s² 2p²。记住填充顺序：1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d… 以周期表为指引。
Hund's rule – electrons fill degenerate orbitals singly and with parallel spins before pairing up. Imagine passengers on a bus taking empty seats before sharing.
洪特规则 – 电子在能量相同的简并轨道中优先单独占据且自旋平行，然后才配对。想象公交车上的乘客先占空座再同坐。
2. Bonding and Structure | 键合与结构
Ionic bonding – electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions in a giant lattice. Typically forms between a metal and a non‑metal, e.g. NaCl.
离子键 – 在巨大晶格中，带相反电荷离子之间的静电吸引力。通常形成于金属与非金属之间，例如 NaCl。
Covalent bonding – sharing of a pair of electrons between two atoms. A single bond shares one pair (H‒H), a double bond shares two pairs (O=O). A dative covalent bond (coordinate bond) shares a pair where both electrons come from the same atom, e.g. in NH₄⁺.
共价键 – 两个原子之间共用一对电子。单键共用一对电子 (H‒H)，双键共用两对电子 (O=O)。配位共价键（配位键）中，共用电子对完全由同一个原子提供，例如 NH₄⁺。
Metallic bonding – the attraction between a lattice of positive metal ions and a sea of delocalised electrons. This explains electrical conductivity and malleability.
金属键 – 正金属离子晶格与离域电子海之间的吸引力。这解释了金属的导电性和延展性。
Electronegativity – the power of an atom to attract the bonding pair of electrons in a covalent bond. Fluorine (4.0) is the most electronegative element.
电负性 – 一个原子在共价键中吸引成键电子对的能力。氟 (4.0) 是电负性最大的元素。
Intermolecular forces – forces between molecules. Van der Waals' forces (induced dipole–dipole) exist between all molecules and increase with molecular size. Permanent dipole–dipole forces occur between polar molecules. Hydrogen bonding is the strongest, occurring when H is bonded to N, O or F.
分子间作用力 – 分子之间的力。范德华力（瞬时偶极-诱导偶极力）存在于所有分子之间，随分子大小增加而增强。永久偶极-永久偶极力存在于极性分子之间。氢键是最强的分子间力，当 H 与 N、O 或 F 成键时产生。
VSEPR shapes – use electron‑pair repulsion to predict shape and bond angle. Key shapes:
| Shape | Bond angle | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Linear | 180° | CO₂, BeCl₂ |
| Trigonal planar | 120° | BF₃ |
| Tetrahedral | 109.5° | CH₄, NH₄⁺ |
| Trigonal pyramidal | 107° | NH₃ |
| Bent (v‑shaped) | 104.5° | H₂O |
VSEPR 分子形状 – 利用电子对互斥理论预测分子形状与键角。关键形状如上表：线形 180°；平面三角形 120°；四面体 109.5°；三角锥形 107°；弯曲形 104.5°。
Giant covalent structures – diamond (each carbon bonded to four others, tetrahedral, hard), graphite (layers of hexagons, delocalised electrons between layers, conducts electricity).
巨型共价结构 – 金刚石（每个碳与另外四个碳键合，四面体结构，极硬），石墨（六边形层状结构，层间有离域电子，可导电）。
3. Energetics | 能量学
Enthalpy change (ΔH) – heat change at constant pressure. Exothermic reactions release heat (ΔH negative); endothermic reactions absorb heat (ΔH positive).
焓变（ΔH） – 恒压下的热交换。放热反应释放热量（ΔH 为负值）；吸热反应吸收热量（ΔH 为正值）。
Standard enthalpy of combustion (ΔH°꜀) – the enthalpy change when one mole of a substance is completely burned in oxygen under standard conditions.
标准燃烧焓（ΔH°꜀） – 在标准条件下，一摩尔物质在氧气中完全燃烧时的焓变。
Standard enthalpy of formation (ΔH°ꜰ) – the enthalpy change when one mole of a compound is formed from its elements under standard conditions.
标准生成焓（ΔH°ꜰ） – 在标准条件下，由元素生成一摩尔化合物时的焓变。
Hess's law – the total enthalpy change for a reaction is independent of the route taken, provided the initial and final conditions are the same.
赫斯定律 – 反应的总焓变与反应路径无关，只取决于始态与终态。
Mean bond enthalpy – the energy required to break one mole of a specific bond, averaged over many different compounds. Bond breaking is endothermic; bond making is exothermic.
平均键焓 – 破坏一摩尔某特定化学键所需的平均能量（由多种化合物数据平均得到）。断键吸热，成键放热。
Calorimetry equation – m = mass of water, c = specific heat capacity (4.18 J g⁻¹ °C⁻¹), ΔT = temperature change.
q = m c ΔT
量热法方程 – 传递的热量 q = m c ΔT，其中 m 为水的质量，c 为比热容 (4.18 J g⁻¹ °C⁻¹)，ΔT 为温度变化。
q = m c ΔT
4. Kinetics | 动力学
Collision theory – for a reaction to occur, particles must collide with sufficient energy (equal to or greater than the activation energy) and correct orientation.
碰撞理论 – 发生反应需要粒子以足够的能量（等于或大于活化能）和正确的取向发生碰撞。
Activation energy (Eₐ) – the minimum energy required for a collision to lead to a reaction.
活化能 (Eₐ) – 发生有效碰撞所需的最低能量。
Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution – the curve equals the total number of molecules. Only particles with energy ≥ Eₐ can react.
麦克斯韦–玻尔兹曼分布 – 显示气体分子能量分布的曲线。曲线下面积为总分子数。只有能量 ≥ Eₐ 的粒子才能发生反应。
Effect of temperature – tly increasing the proportion of molecules with E ≥ Eₐ, hence rate increases dramatically.
温度的影响 – 升高温度使分布曲线右移，大幅增加能量 ≥ Eₐ 的分子比例，因此反应速率显著加快。
Catalyst – a substance that increases the rate of reaction by providing an alternative pathway with a lower activation energy, without being used up chemically. A heterogeneous catalyst is in a different phase from the reactants.
催化剂 – 通过提供一条活化能较低的不同反应路径来加快反应速率，且自身在化学上不被消耗。多相催化剂与反应物处于不同相态。
5. Chemical Equilibria | 化学平衡
Dynamic equilibrium – the state in a reversible reaction where the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the backward reaction, and the concentrations of reactants and products remain constant. It can only be achieved in a closed system.
动态平衡 – 可逆反应中，正反应速率与逆反应速率相等，反应物和产物浓度保持恒定的状态。只能在封闭体系中达到。
Le Chatelier's principle – if a system at equilibrium is subjected to a change in concentration, pressure or temperature, the position of equilibrium shifts to oppose the change.
勒夏特列原理 – 如果改变平衡体系的浓度、压强或温度，平衡位置将向削弱该改变的方向移动。
Equilibrium constant K꜀ – for a general reaction aA + bB ⇌ cC + dD, the expression is K꜀ = [C]ᶜ gaseous and aqueous species appear in the expression; solids and pure liquids are omitted.
K꜀ = [C]ᶜ[D]ᵈ / [A]ᵃ[B]
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