📚 Quick Guide to Mastering Key Terminology in Year 12 Cambridge Philosophy | Year 12 剑桥哲学：词汇术语速记指南
Philosophy at Year 12 introduces a wealth of precise terminology that can feel overwhelming. This guide breaks down the most essential concepts into clear, memorable definitions and contrast pairs, helping you build the conceptual vocabulary required for Cambridge AS Philosophy.
Year 12 阶段的哲学会引入大量精确术语，这可能令人望而生畏。本指南将最重要的概念分解为清晰、易记的定义和对比配对，帮助你构建剑桥 AS 哲学所需的概念词汇。
1. A Priori and A Posteriori | 先验与后验
A priori knowledge is justified independently of sense experience. Its truth can be known just by thinking, as with 'All triangles have three sides'. No observation of the world is needed to verify such a proposition.
先验知识是独立于感官经验即可证成的知识。仅通过思考就能知道其真实性，比如'所有三角形都有三条边'。验证这类命题不需要观察世界。
A posteriori knowledge depends on experience or empirical evidence. Statements like 'The cat is on the mat' can only be known by looking, touching, or otherwise perceiving the world.
后验知识依赖于经验或经验证据。像'猫在垫子上'这样的陈述，只有通过看、触摸或以其他方式感知世界才能知道。
Quick mnemonic: A priori comes before experience; A posteriori comes after experience. Think 'prior' and 'post'.
速记：先验在经验之前（prior）；后验在经验之后（post）。
2. Analytic and Synthetic | 分析与综合
An analytic statement is true solely in virtue of the meanings of its words. The predicate is already contained in the subject. For instance, 'All bachelors are unmarried men' is analytic because 'unmarried man' is precisely what 'bachelor' means.
分析陈述仅仅因为词语的含义而为真。谓词已经包含在主词中。例如，'所有单身汉都是未婚男人'是分析的，因为'未婚男人'正是'单身汉'的意思。
A synthetic statement extends our knowledge and is not true by definition alone. The predicate adds something new to the subject. 'The cat is on the mat' is synthetic; the concept of 'cat' does not contain 'being on the mat'.
综合陈述扩展我们的知识，并非仅凭定义就为真。谓词给主词添加了新东西。'猫在垫子上'是综合的；'猫'这个概念并不包含'在垫子上'。
Memory tip: Analytic = true by definition, like '1+1=2' in some views; Synthetic = needs world-check, like 'water boils at 100°C'.
记忆技巧：分析 = 按定义为真，如在某些观点下的'1+1=2'；综合 = 需要现实检验，如'水在100°C沸腾'。
3. Necessary and Contingent | 必然与偶然
th is one that could not possibly be false; it holds in every possible world. For example, '2+2=4' is necessary because we cannot conceive any reality where this would fail.
必然真理是指不可能为假的真理，它在每一个可能世界都成立。例如，'2+2=4'是必然的，因为我们无法设想任何现实中这个等式会不成立。
A contingent truth is true in the actual world but could have been otherwise. 'Paris is the capital of France' is contingent: a different historical event could have made Lyon the capital.
偶然真理在现实世界为真，但本可能不是这样。'巴黎是法国首都'是偶然的：另一个历史事件本可能让里昂成为首都。
Link these to a priori: some a priori truths are necessary (mathematics), but not all. Avoid confusing the epistemological (a priori) with the metaphysical (necessary).
将这些与先验联系起来：有些先验真理是必然的（数学），但不是全部。避免混淆认识论概念（先验）和形而上学概念（必然）。
4. Deductive and Inductive Reasoning | 演绎与归纳推理
Deductive reasoning aims to provide a guarantee of the conclusion if the premises are true. In a valid deductive argument, the conclusion follows with absolute certainty. Standard example: All men are mortal, Socrates is a man, therefore Socrates is mortal.
演绎推理旨在保证：如果前提为真，结论必然为真。在一个有效的演绎论证中，结论以绝对的确定性得出。标准例子：所有人都会死，苏格拉底是人，所以苏格拉底会死。
Inductive reasoning offers only probabilistic support for the conclusion. Even if all observed swans are white, the conclusion 'All swans are white' is not logically guaranteed. Inductive arguments are risky but amplify our empirical knowledge.
归纳推理只为结论提供或然性支持。即使所有观察到的天鹅都是白的，结论'所有天鹅都是白的'在逻辑上并不得到保证。归纳论证有风险，但扩展了我们的经验知识。
Use the 'wave' analogy: Deduction is like a wave that carries the truth forward without loss; induction is like using past waves to predict the next one, always uncertain.
使用'波浪'类比：演绎如浪涛般无损耗地传递真值；归纳就像根据过去的波浪预测下一个，总是不确定的。
5. Validity and Soundness | 有效性与可靠性
A deductive argument is valid if and only if it is impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion false. Validity is about the logical structure, not the actual truth of the statements. An argument with false premises can still be valid.
一个演绎论证是有效的，当且仅当不可能出现前提真而结论假的情况。有效性关乎逻辑结构，而非陈述的实际真值。前提为假的论证仍可能有效。
An argument is sound when it is both valid and all its premises are actually true. Soundness guarantees a true conclusion. If Socrates were not a man, the previous example would be valid but unsound.
一个论证是可靠的，当它既有效且所有前提实际上皆为真。可靠性保证了结论的真实性。如果苏格拉底不是人，前面的例子仍然有效但不可靠。
= if premises true, conclusion must be true. Sound = valid + premises true. Just remember 'S' for sound has a true start.
记忆：有效 = 如果前提真，则结论必真。可靠 = 有效 + 前提真。记住'S'代表真起始（sound, true start）。
6. Realism and Anti-Realism | 实在论与反实在论
Realism about a domain claims that the objects or facts in that domain exist mind-independently. Moral realism holds that moral properties like 'goodness' exist whether or not we perceive them. Scientific realism says electrons exist objectively.
关于某个领域的实在论声称该领域中的对象或事实是独立于心灵存在的。道德实在论认为'善'等道德属性存在，无论我们是否感知到。科学实在论说电子是客观存在的。
Anti-realism denies mind-independent existence. Instead, truths in that domain depend on our perceptions, concepts, or linguistic practices. Moral anti-realism might treat moral judgements as expressions of emotion (emotivism) or social constructions.
反实在论否认独立于心灵的存在。相反，该领域的真理依赖于我们的感知、概念或语言实践。道德反实在论可能把道德判断视为情感表达（情感主义）或社会建构。
To keep them apart, ask: 'Would this fact remain if all minds disappeared?' Realism says yes; anti-realism says no.
区分方法：问'如果所有心灵都消失，这个事实还会存在吗？'实在论说会；反实在论说不会。
7. Dualism and Materialism | 二元论与唯物主义
Substance dualism claims that mind and body are two fundamentally different kinds of substance. The mind is non-physical, thinking substance (res cogitans), while the body is physical, extended substance (res extensa), as Descartes argued.
实体二元论声称心灵和身体是两种根本不同的实体。心灵是非物理的、思维着的实体（res cogitans），而身体是物理的、有广延的实体（res extensa），如笛卡尔所论证的。
Materialism (physicalism) holds that everything that exists, including mental states, is ultimately physical. Consciousness emerges from brain processes, and there is no immaterial soul. The identity theory claims mental states just are brain states.
唯物主义（物理主义）认为一切存在的东西，包括心理状态，最终都是物理的。意识产生于大脑过程，不存在非物质灵魂。同一论声称心理状态就是大脑状态。
alism = two stuffs, like water and oil; Materialism = one stuff, like ice turning to water – different forms, same substance.
快速回忆：二元论 = 两种东西，如水与油；唯物主义 = 一种东西，如冰变成水——不同形式，同一物质。
8. Utilitarianism and Deontology | 功利主义与义务论
Utilitarianism is a consequentialist theory that judges the morality of an action by its outcomes. The right action is the one that maximises utility, often understood as happiness or pleasure, for the greatest number. Bentham's hedonic calculus and Mill's higher pleasures are central.
功利主义是一种后果论理论，根据行为的后果判断其道德性。正确的行为是能为最大多数人带来最大化功利（通常理解为幸福或快乐）的行为。边沁的快乐计算和密尔的高等快乐是核心。
Deontology, most associated with Kant, judges actions by whether they conform to moral rules or duties, regardless of consequences. The Categorical Imperative requires acting only on maxims that can be universalised and treating persons never merely as a means.
义务论，最常与康德联系，根据行为是否符合道德规则或义务来评判，而不考虑后果。定言命令要求只按照能够普遍化的准则行动，并始终将人视为目的本身，而不仅仅是手段。
Contrast corner: Utilitarianism asks 'How much happiness produced?'; Deontology asks 'Would I want everyone to act this way?'
对比角：功利主义问'产生了多少幸福？'；义务论问'我愿意所有人都这样行动吗？'
9. Divine Command Theory and Natural Law | 神命论与自然法
Divine Command Theory states that an action is morally right because God commands it, and wrong because God forbids it. Morality directly depends on God's will. This faces the Euthyphro dilemma: is something good because God commands it, or does God command it because it is good?
神命论主张，一个行为之所以在道德上是正确的，是因为上帝命令了它，错误则因为上帝禁止了它。道德直接依赖于上帝的意志。这面临着游叙弗伦困境：某事是因为上帝命令才为善，还是因为它是善的上帝才命令？
Natural Law theory, rooted in Aquinas, maintains that morality is grounded in the rational order of nature created by God. Through reason, we can discern the natural purposes (telos) built into human nature, such as preserving life and seeking knowledge. Immoral acts contravene these natural ends.
自然法理论植根于阿奎那，主张道德基于由上帝创造的自然理性秩序。通过理性，我们可以识别内建于人性中的自然目的（telos），如保存生命和寻求知识。不道德行为违反这些自然目的。
Memory: Divine Command = God's will creates morality; Natural Law = God's design reveals morality through reason. One is a decree, the other a blueprint.
记忆：神命论 = 上帝的意志创造道德；自然法 = 上帝的设计通过理性揭示道德。一个是法令，一个蓝图。
10. Theodicies and the Problem of Evil | 神正论与恶的问题
The logical problem of evil challenges the existence of an omnipotent, omnibenevolent God given the existence of evil. If God is all-powerful, he could prevent evil; if all-loving, he would want to; evil exists, so such a God seems not to exist.
恶的逻辑问题挑战了全能、全善之上帝的存在，因为恶存在。如果上帝全能，他能阻止恶；如果全善，他会想阻止；恶存在，所以这样的上帝似乎不存在。
A theodicy is an attempt to justify God's permission of evil. The free will defence argues that God gave humans free will because moral goodness requires freely chosen love and virtue, and the possibility of evil is a necessary consequence of that gift.
神正论是试图证明上帝容许恶之存在的正当性。自由意志辩护论证上帝给予人类自由意志，因为道德善需要自由选择的爱与美德，而恶的可能性是这份恩赐的必然结果。
Soul-making theodicy (Irenaeus/Hick) sees evil as a tool for spiritual development. Evil challenges us to grow into virtuous beings. In contrast, Augustine's theodicy treats evil as a privation of good, not a created thing.
灵魂塑造神正论（爱任纽/希克）将恶视为灵性发展的工具。恶挑战我们成长为有美德的存在。相比之下，奥古斯丁的神正论将恶视为善的缺乏，而非受造之物。
Key terms: Theodicy = God's justification; Defence = merely showing no logical contradiction. Remember 'dicy' as 'deity's case'.
关键术语：神正论 = 上帝的辩护；辩护 = 仅表明没有逻辑矛盾。记住神正论是神（deity）的案子（case）。
11. Ontological, Cosmological, and Teleological Arguments | 本体论、宇宙论与目的论论证
The ontological argument, proposed by Anselm, argues from the very concept of God as 'that than which nothing greater can be conceived'. If such a being exists only in the mind, it is not the greatest conceivable being, because a being that exists in reality is greater. Thus, God must exist in reality.
本体论论证由安瑟伦提出，从上帝作为'无法设想有比之更伟大者'的概念出发。如果这样的存在只存在于心灵中，它就不是可设想的最伟大者，因为存在于现实中的存在更伟大。因此，上帝必然存在于现实中。
The cosmological argument argues from the existence of the universe to a first cause or necessary being. Aquinas' First Cause argument observes that everything in motion is moved by another, and to avoid infinite regress, there must be an Unmoved Mover, identified as God.
宇宙论论证从宇宙的存在推论出第一因或必然存在者。阿奎那的第一推动者论证观察到，所有运动的事物都被他物推动，为避免无限回溯，必须有一个不动的推动者，即上帝。
The teleological argument (design argument) points to the apparent order and purpose in nature as evidence of a designer. Paley's watchmaker analogy: if you find a watch, its complexity implies a watchmaker; likewise, the complexity of the universe implies a cosmic designer.
目的论论证（设计论证）指出自然界明显的秩序和目的，作为存在设计者的证据。佩利的钟表匠类比：如果你发现一块手表，它的复杂性意味着存在制表匠；同样，宇宙的复杂性意味着存在宇宙设计者。
ity; Cosmological = from existence to first cause; Teleological = from design to designer.
快速回忆：本体论 = 从思想到实在；宇宙论 = 从存在到第一因；目的论 = 从设计到设计者。
12. Rationalism, Empiricism, and Skepticism | 理性主义、经验主义与怀疑论
Rationalism holds that reason is the primary source of knowledge, and that certain truths can be grasped independently of sensory experience. Descartes, Spinoza, and Leibniz are classic rationalists. Innate ideas—concepts we are born with—are central to this view.
理性主义主张理性是知识的主要来源，某些真理可以独立于感官经验而被把握。笛卡尔、斯宾诺莎和莱布尼茨是经典理性主义者。天赋观念——我们与生俱来的概念——是这一观点的核心。
Empiricism asserts that all knowledge ultimately comes from sensory experience. The mind is a tabula rasa (blank slate) at birth. Locke, Berkeley, and Hume are key empiricists. For Hume, even causal connections are known only through habitual experience, not rational insight.
经验主义断言一切知识最终都来自感官经验。心灵在出生时是一块白板（tabula rasa）。洛克、贝克莱和休谟是重要经验主义者。对休谟而言，甚至因果联系也只是通过习惯性经验才被知晓，而非理性洞察。
Philosophical skepticism questions the possibility of knowledge itself. Global skepticism doubts we can know anything at all; local skepticism targets specific domains, such as the external world or other minds. Descartes' evil demon scenario is a skeptical challenge designed to find indubitable foundations.
哲学怀疑论质疑知识本身的可能性。全域怀疑论怀疑我们能够认识任何事物；局部怀疑论针对特定领域，如外部世界或他心。笛卡尔的恶魔情境是一个怀疑论挑战，旨在找到不可怀疑的基础。
ationalism = born with knowledge; Empiricism = learn through senses; Skepticism = prove it! Use 'RES' to order them: Rationalism, Empiricism, Skepticism.
思维导图：理性主义 = 禀赋知识；经验主义 = 通过感官学习；怀疑论 = 证明它！用'RES'排序：Rationalism, Empiricism, Skepticism.
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