📚 Year 12 Edexcel Philosophy: Key Terminology Quick-Memorisation Guide | 12年级爱德思哲学：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering philosophical terminology is the first step to success in Year 12 Edexcel Philosophy. This guide organises essential terms across epistemology, moral philosophy, and metaphysics of mind, with clear English–Chinese pairings and memory aids to help you recall concepts quickly and accurately for essays and exams.
掌握哲学词汇是12年级爱德思哲学成功的第一步。本指南将认识论、道德哲学与心灵形而上学的核心术语系统梳理，提供清晰的中英对照和记忆技巧，帮助你快速准确地回忆概念，在论文与考试中脱颖而出。
1. Knowledge: Justified True Belief and Gettier | 知识：确证的真信念与盖梯尔问题
In the Edexcel specification, knowledge is first approached through the tripartite definition: S knows that P if and only if (i) P is true, (ii) S believes that P, and (iii) S is justified in believing that P. This is the JTB account, traceable to Plato.
在爱德思课程中，知识首先通过三要素定义来理解：S知道P当且仅当（i）P为真，（ii）S相信P，且（iii）S有确证地相信P。这就是可追溯至柏拉图的JTB说明。
Gettier’s 1963 counterexamples show that JTB is not sufficient. Cases where a belief is true and justified merely by luck challenge the traditional analysis, pushing students toward conditions like ‘no false lemmas’ or reliabilism.
盖梯尔1963年的反例表明JTB并不充分。那些仅凭运气而真且确证的信念挑战了传统分析，促使学生进一步思考“无虚假引理”或可靠主义等条件。
| Term | Definition | 中文 |
|---|---|---|
| Justified True Belief | Belief that is both true and supported by evidence/reasons. | 确证的真信念 |
| Gettier Case | A scenario where JTB is satisfied but knowledge is absent due to luck. | 盖梯尔案例 |
Remember the mnemonic “JTB = Just True Belief” and “Gettier = luck spoils knowledge”.
记忆口诀：“JTB即恰好真信念”，“盖梯尔让运气破坏知识”。
2. Theories of Justification | 确证理论
To avoid infinite regress, foundationalism claims some beliefs are basic and self-justifying (e.g., sense-data). Coherentism argues that beliefs are justified by fitting into a coherent web, like a raft at sea. Reliabilism, a popular externalist theory, holds that a belief is justified if produced by a reliable cognitive process.
为避免无限回溯，基础主义主张某些信念是基础的且自我确证的（如感觉材料）。融贯论则认为信念通过与一个融贯的网络相契合而得到确证，如同海上筏板。可靠主义作为一种流行的外在主义理论，主张信念若由可靠的认知过程产生即为确证的。
lism = building on bedrock; coherentism = web; reliabilism = reliable thermometer analogy.
快速记忆：基础主义如建造在基岩上；融贯论如蛛网；可靠主义如可靠的温度计。
3. Rationalism and Empiricism | 理性主义与经验主义
Rationalism is the view that reason is the primary source of knowledge, and we can have innate ideas (Descartes, Plato). Empiricism asserts that all knowledge originates in sense experience; the mind is a tabula rasa (Locke, Hume). Year 12 Edexcel requires you to compare these regarding concepts and a priori knowledge.
理性主义认为理性是知识的主要来源，我们具有天赋观念（笛卡尔、柏拉图）。经验主义主张所有知识源于感觉经验；心灵是一块白板（洛克、休谟）。12年级爱德思要求你比较二者在概念与先验知识方面的立场。
| Concept | Rationalism | Empiricism | 中文对比 |
|---|---|---|---|
| Innate ideas | Yes | No | 天赋观念 有/无 |
| Primary source | Reason | Experience | 主要来源 理性/经验 |
4. A Priori, A Posteriori, Analytic, Synthetic | 先验、后验、分析、综合
dependent of experience (e.g., 2+2=4). A posteriori knowledge depends on experience (e.g., 'The sky is blue'). An analytic statement is true in virtue of the meaning of words (e.g., 'All bachelors are unmarried'). A synthetic statement requires verification against the world (e.g., 'Snow is white').
先验知识独立于经验（如2+2=4）。后验知识依赖于经验（如“天空是蓝色的”）。分析陈述仅凭语词意义即为真（如“所有单身汉都未婚”）。综合陈述需要与世界对照验证（如“雪是白的”）。
Kant’s breakthrough was the synthetic a priori, but for Year 12, start with these four categories and test with short examples.
康德的突破在于综合先验判断，但对12年级而言，先掌握这四个范畴并用简例测试。
5. Necessary and Contingent Truths | 必然真理与偶然真理
A necessary truth is one that could not have been false; it holds in all possible worlds. A contingent truth might have been false; it depends on how the actual world is. The terms are crucial in cosmological arguments and discussions of causation.
必然真理是指不可能为假的真理，它在所有可能世界都成立。偶然真理可能为假，取决于现实世界如何。这些术语在宇宙论论证和因果讨论中至关重要。
Think: necessary = no alternative; contingent = depends on facts. For example, 'Triangles have three sides' is necessary; 'London has over 7 million people' is contingent.
记忆：必然 = 别无选择；偶然 = 随事实而定。例如，“三角形有三条边”是必然的；“伦敦有超过700万人口”是偶然的。
6. Deduction, Induction and Abduction | 演绎、归纳与溯因
Deduction: if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true. Valid deductive arguments guarantee truth-preservation. Induction: the premises support the conclusion but do not guarantee it; it ampliative, going beyond the given data. Abduction (inference to the best explanation) selects the hypothesis that best explains the evidence.
演绎：如果前提为真，结论必然为真。有效的演绎论证保证真值传递。归纳：前提支持结论却不保证结论；它是扩展性的，超越既有数据。溯因（最佳说明推理）选择最能解释证据的假说。
formula: Deduction = certainty, Induction = probability, Abduction = explanation. Remember 'ction moves from general to specific; induction generalises; abduction creates hypotheses.'
公式记忆：演绎 = 确定性，归纳 = 概率，溯因 = 解释。记住“演绎从一般到特殊；归纳概括；溯因形成假说”。
7. Moral Philosophy: Cognitivism vs Non-Cognitivism | 道德哲学：认知主义与非认知主义
Cognitivism claims moral judgements express beliefs that are truth-apt (can be true or false). Naturalism and non-naturalism (Moore’s intuitionism) are forms of cognitivism. Non-cognitivism (emotivism, prescriptivism) holds that moral utterances express non-cognitive attitudes, like emotions or commands, and are not truth-apt.
认知主义主张道德判断表达可具有真值的信念（可真可假）。自然主义和非自然主义（摩尔的直觉主义）属于认知主义。非认知主义（情绪主义、规定主义）认为道德话语表达非认知态度，如情绪或命令，不具有真值。
Ayer’s emotivism: 'Stealing is wrong!' means 'Boo to stealing!' – an expression of feeling. Hare’s prescriptivism treats moral terms as universal prescriptions.
艾耶尔的情绪主义：“偷窃是错的！”意为“不要偷窃！”，一种情感表达。黑尔的规定主义将道德术语视为普遍规定。
8. Utilitarianism: Act and Rule | 功利主义：行为与规则
Act utilitarianism (Bentham) judges each individual action by the principle of utility – the greatest happiness for the greatest number. It uses the hedonic calculus to weigh pleasure and pain. Rule utilitarianism (Mill) argues we should follow general rules that, if universally adopted, maximise utility.
行为功利主义（边沁）根据功利原则——最大多数人的最大幸福——来评判每个个别行为。它使用快乐计算法衡量苦乐。规则功利主义（密尔）主张我们应遵循那些如果普遍采用就会最大化功利的一般规则。
le-based optimisation. Higher and lower pleasures (Mill) distinguish quality of happiness.
区别在于：行为功利 = 直接计算；规则功利 = 基于规则的优化。密尔的更高级与更低级快乐区分了幸福的品质。
9. Kantian Deontology: Categorical Imperative | 康德义务论：定言命令
Kant’s ethics centres on duty and the categorical imperative: act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law. This gives the formula of universal law and the formula of humanity – never treat persons merely as means.
康德伦理学以义务和定言命令为核心：只按照你同时意愿其能成为普遍法则的准则去行动。这衍生出普遍法则公式和人性公式——永远不把人仅仅当作手段。
Key terms: good will (only thing good without qualification), maxim (subjective principle of action), contradiction in conception, contradiction in will. Test a maxim by checking if universalising it leads to a logical or practical contradiction.
关键术语：善良意志（唯一无限制好的东西）、准则（行动的主观原则）、概念中的矛盾、意志中的矛盾。通过检查使准则普遍化是否导致逻辑或实践矛盾来检验行为。
10. Aristotelian Virtue Ethics | 亚里士多德美德伦理学
Virtue ethics focuses on character and eudaimonia (flourishing). For Aristotle, a virtue is a mean between extremes (courage between rashness and cowardice). The function argument holds that the good for humans is rational activity in accordance with virtue.
美德伦理学关注品格与eudaimonia（繁荣兴旺）。在亚里士多德看来，美德是极端之间的中道（勇敢介于鲁莽与怯懦之间）。功能论证主张人的善在于依据美德的理性活动。
Phronesis (practical wisdom) is the intellectual virtue that discerns the mean. Students should remember the doctrine of the mean is not a rigid arithmetic average but relative to us.
明智（实践智慧）是辨别中道的理智美德。学生应记住，中道学说并非僵化的算术平均，而是相对于我们而言的。
11. Metaphysics of Mind: Substance Dualism | 心灵形而上学：实体二元论
Substance dualism, associated with Descartes, claims mind and body are two distinct substances. The mind is res cogitans (thinking thing), not extended in space; the body is res extensa (extended thing). The interaction problem asks how an immaterial mind causes changes in a material body.
与笛卡尔相关的实体二元论主张心灵和身体是两种截然不同的实体。心灵是res cogitans（思维之物），不在空间中延展；身体是res extensa（广延之物）。互动问题追问非物质的心如何引发物质身体的改变。
Key arguments for dualism: the argument from doubt (I can doubt my body but not my mind), divisibility (body divisible, mind not), and conceivability (zombie argument). Remember 'Divisibility: mind not divisible, body divisible.'
支持二元论的主要论证：怀疑论证（我可怀疑身体却不可怀疑心灵）、可分性论证（身体可分，心灵不可分）和可设想性论证（僵尸论证）。记作：“可分性：心不可分，身可分。”
12. Physicalism and the Hard Problem | 物理主义与困难问题
Physicalism holds that everything is physical or supervenes on the physical. Identity theory equates mental states with brain states. Functionalism defines mental states by their causal roles. The 'hard problem of consciousness' (Chalmers) is explaining why there is phenomenal experience (qualia) at all.
物理主义主张一切事物都是物理的或随附于物理的。同一论将心理状态等同于大脑状态。功能主义根据因果角色定义心理状态。“意识困难问题”（查默斯）在于解释为什么竟存在现象经验（感质）。
Qualia are the subjective 'what it is like' aspects of experience. Mary’s room thought experiment challenges physicalism: Mary knows all physical facts about colour but learns something new when she sees red – suggesting non-physical knowledge.
感质是体验的主观“是什么样子”。玛丽房间思想实验挑战物理主义：玛丽知道关于颜色的所有物理事实，在看到红色时仍学到新东西——暗示非物理知识。
| Theory | Core Idea | 中文 |
|---|---|---|
| Type Identity | Mental state = brain state | 心脑同一 |
| Functionalism | Mental state = causal role | 功能主义 |
| Eliminativism | Folk psychology will be eliminated | 取消主义 |
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