Cambridge Year 12 Politics: Key Terms Quick Revision Guide | 剑桥 Year 12 政治：词汇术语速记指南

📚 Cambridge Year 12 Politics: Key Terms Quick Revision Guide | 剑桥 Year 12 政治：词汇术语速记指南

Mastering the core vocabulary is the first step to success in Cambridge Year 12 Politics. This guide breaks down the most essential terms you will encounter across topics such as power, the state, constitutions, and systems of government. Each entry is explained with clear definitions and contextual examples that directly link to the Cambridge International AS & A Level Politics syllabus (9489). Use this as your go-to revision companion to build confidence in essay writing and source-based analysis.

掌握核心词汇是剑桥 Year 12 政治学迈向成功的第一步。这份指南将逐一解析你在“权力与国家”“宪法”以及“政府体制”等主题中会遇到的最关键的术语。每个词条都配有清晰的定义和结合情境的例子，直接对标剑桥国际 AS 与 A Level 政治学大纲（9489）。把它当作你最可靠的复习伙伴，帮助你在论文写作和材料分析题中建立信心。

1. Power, Authority & Legitimacy | 权力、权威与合法性

Power is the ability to make someone do something they would not otherwise do, and it can be exercised through coercion, persuasion, or manipulation. In politics, power is rarely naked force – it often seeks to present itself as authority. Authority is legitimate power; it is the right to influence the behaviour of others because they believe the person or institution giving the command has the right to do so. Legitimacy is the quality that transforms power into authority. A government is legitimate when its rule is widely accepted by the people, either because it followed established legal procedures, reflects popular consent, or delivers outcomes that align with society's values. Max Weber famously identified three types of legitimate authority: traditional (based on custom), charismatic (based on personal appeal), and legal‑rational (based on a set of impersonal rules).

权力是让他人做其本不会做的事情的能力，它可以通过强制、说服或操纵来行使。在政治中，权力很少是赤裸裸的暴力——它常常试图以权威的面貌出现。权威是正当化的权力，即由于人们相信发号施令的个人或机构有权这样做，因此它具备了影响他人行为的资格。合法性正是使权力转化为权威的那种品质。当一个政府的统治被民众广泛接受时，它就具有合法性——这种接受可以是因为它遵循了既定的法律程序，体现了民众的同意，或者带来了符合社会价值的成果。马克斯·韦伯曾著名地将合法权威分为三种类型：传统型（基于习俗）、魅力型（基于个人吸引力）和法理型（基于一套非人格化的规则）。

2. The State and Sovereignty | 国家与主权

The state is the set of institutions that possess a monopoly of legitimate force over a defined territory. It includes the executive, legislature, judiciary, bureaucracy, police, and armed forces. A key feature of the modern state is sovereignty, which means ultimate, supreme, and unrestricted power within a territory. Internal sovereignty refers to the state's ability to exercise authority over all individuals and groups inside its borders, while external sovereignty denotes recognition by other states that it is legally independent and can enter into international agreements. In the UK, the traditional doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty holds that Parliament is the supreme legal authority, capable of making or unmaking any law. However, this has been challenged by membership in international organisations, devolution, and judicial review.

国家是一套在确定的领土范围内垄断合法武力行使权的制度总和，它包括行政机构、立法机关、司法机关、官僚系统、警察和军队。现代国家的一个关键特征是主权，它意味着领土内最高的、至上的、不受约束的权力。内部主权指的是国家对其境内所有个人和团体行使权威的能力，而外部主权则指其他国家承认该国家在法律上是独立的，并能够缔结国际协议。在英国，传统的议会主权学说认为议会是最高的法律权威，可以制定或废除任何法律。然而，这一观念受到了国际组织成员身份、权力下放和司法审查等挑战。

3. Democracy and Its Forms | 民主及其形式

Democracy literally means 'rule by the people'. In its direct form, citizens assemble and make decisions themselves, without intermediaries. In modern large‑scale states, representative democracy is the norm: voters elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf. Liberal democracy combines free and fair elections with protections for individual rights, the rule of law, and a separation of powers to prevent tyranny of the majority. Features of a liberal democracy include universal suffrage, competing political parties, freedom of speech and assembly, and an independent judiciary. The UK is often described as a parliamentary democracy because the executive is drawn from and accountable to the legislature, though elements of direct democracy, such as referendums, are also used on constitutional questions.

民主的字面意思是“人民统治”。在直接民主形式下，公民自己集会并做出决策，无需中介。在当代大规模国家中，代议制民主是常态：选民选举代表，由代表替他们做出决定。自由民主制将自由公正的选举与对个人权利的保护、法治和权力分立相结合，以防止多数人的暴政。自由民主的特征包括普选权、存在竞争性的政党、言论与集会自由以及独立的司法机构。英国通常被描述为一个议会民主制国家，因为行政机构产生自立法机关并向其负责，尽管在宪法问题上也会使用全民公投等直接民主的成分。

4. Parliamentary vs Presidential Systems | 议会制与总统制

A parliamentary system is one in which the executive (the prime minister and cabinet) emerges from the legislature and can be removed by a vote of no confidence. The head of state (a monarch or a ceremonial president) is separate from the head of government. This fusion of powers can produce strong government but depends on party discipline. In a presidential system, the president is both head of state and head of government, elected separately from the legislature, and serves a fixed term. Separation of powers is more rigid, with the executive and legislature operating independently. For example, the USA has a presidential system, while the UK has a parliamentary system with a constitutional monarch. Students should be able to compare the accountability, effectiveness, and stability of each model.

议会制是一种行政机构（首相和内阁）产生于立法机关、并可通过不信任投票被罢免的制度。国家元首（君主或礼仪性总统）与政府首脑是分开的。这种权力的融合可以产生强力政府，但依赖于政党纪律。在总统制中，总统既是国家元首又是政府首脑，独立于立法机关选举产生，并担任固定任期。权力分立更加刚性，行政和立法彼此独立运作。例如，美国实行总统制，而英国是君主立宪下的议会制。学生应能够比较每种模式在问责、效能和稳定性方面的异同。

5. Constitutions: Codified and Uncodified | 宪法：成文与不成文

A constitution is the set of rules that establishes the duties, powers, and functions of government institutions and defines the relationship between the state and the individual. A codified constitution is a single, authoritative document that is entrenched and superior to ordinary law (e.g., the US Constitution). An uncodified constitution is not found in one single document; it is drawn from statute law, common law, conventions, and authoritative works. The UK is one of the few democracies with an uncodified constitution. This makes it flexible and easy to amend, but critics argue it lacks clarity and offers weaker protection of rights. Key sources of the UK constitution include Magna Carta, the Bill of Rights 1689, the Parliament Acts, constitutional conventions such as individual and collective ministerial responsibility, and the Human Rights Act 1998.

宪法是确立政府机构的职责、权力和功能，并界定国家与个人之间关系的一套规则。成文宪法是一部单一的、权威性的文件，具有“刚性”，其地位高于普通法律（例如美国宪法）。不成文宪法则不存在于单一文件中，而是来源于成文法、普通法、惯例和权威著作。英国是少数拥有不成文宪法的民主国家之一。这使得宪法灵活且易于修订，但批评者认为它缺乏清晰度，而且对权利的保护较弱。英国宪法的主要来源包括《大宪章》、1689年《权利法案》、《议会法案》、大臣个人及集体责任等宪法惯例，以及1998年《人权法案》。

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6. The Rule of Law | 法治

The rule of law is the principle that all individuals and institutions, including the government itself, are subject to and accountable under the law. It stands in opposition to arbitrary rule. Key features include legal certainty, equality before the law, access to justice, and the protection of fundamental rights. A.V. Dicey’s classic formulation includes the absence of arbitrary power, the equal subjection of all classes to the ordinary law, and the idea that the constitution is the result of judicial decisions defining individual rights. In the modern context, the rule of law is a benchmark for evaluating whether a state respects human dignity and democratic governance. Students should be ready to discuss how threats such as overbroad anti‑terror legislation or the excessive use of executive prerogatives can erode this principle.

法治是一项原则，它要求所有个人和机构——包括政府本身——都须服从法律并依据法律承担责任。它与专制统治相对立。其主要特征包括法律的确定性、法律面前人人平等、诉诸司法的途径，以及对基本权利的保护。戴雪提出的经典阐述包含：否定专断权力，所有阶层同等地服从普通法，以及宪法是保障个人权利的司法判决之结果。在当代语境中，法治是衡量一个国家是否尊重人的尊严和民主治理的标尺。学生应准备讨论诸如过于宽泛的反恐立法或过度行使行政特权等威胁如何侵蚀这一原则。

7. Separation of Powers and Checks and Balances | 权力分立与制衡

The separation of powers divides government into three branches – the legislature (makes laws), the executive (implements laws), and the judiciary (interprets and applies laws) – and assigns different personnel to each branch to prevent a concentration of power. In the UK, the fusion of executive and legislature means a pure separation is absent, but a degree of judicial independence has been strengthened by the Constitutional Reform Act 2005, which created the Supreme Court and reformed the role of the Lord Chancellor. Checks and balances go a step further by giving each branch some authority to limit or control the others. For example, the UK Parliament can scrutinise the government through select committees and question time, while courts can declare ministerial actions ultra vires through judicial review.

权力分立将政府分为三个分支——立法机关（制定法律）、行政机关（执行法律）和司法机关（解释和适用法律）——并将不同的人员分配到每个分支，以防止权力集中。在英国，由于行政与立法融合，并不存在纯粹的分立，但2005年《宪法改革法》创设了最高法院并改革了大法官的角色，从而在一定程度上加强了司法独立。制衡则更进一步，赋予每个分支某些限制或控制其他分支的职权。例如，英国议会可以通过特别委员会和质询时间来审查政府，而法院则可以通过司法审查宣告大臣行为越权。

8. Devolution and Federalism | 权力下放与联邦制

Devolution is the statutory transfer of powers from the central government to regional or local governments, without the central government surrendering its ultimate sovereignty. In the UK, the Scotland Act 1998, the Government of Wales Act, and the Northern Ireland Act created devolved bodies with varying degrees of legislative and executive authority. Westminster remains sovereign and can, in theory, revoke devolved powers. Federalism, by contrast, divides sovereignty between a central (federal) government and regional (state) governments, each of which has powers that cannot be unilaterally removed by the other. The division is typically entrenched in a written constitution. Examples include the United States, Germany, and Australia. Students must understand the difference between devolved and federal systems, and why the UK is not a federal state even though it possesses quasi‑federal features.

权力下放是中央政府将权力法定地转移给地区或地方政府，但中央并不放弃最终主权。在英国，1998年《苏格兰法案》、《威尔士政府法案》和《北爱尔兰法案》创建了享有不同程度立法和行政权力的权力下放机构。威斯敏斯特仍保有主权，理论上可以收回这些下放的权力。联邦制则不同，它在中央政府（联邦）和地区政府（州）之间分割主权，每一方都拥有对方无法单方面取消的权力。这种划分通常被写入成文宪法加以保障。例子包括美国、德国和澳大利亚。学生必须理解权力下放与联邦制的区别，并明白为什么英国虽然具有准联邦特征，却并非一个联邦国家。

9. Cabinet Government and Prime Ministerial Government | 内阁制政府与首相制政府

Under the traditional model of cabinet government, the prime minister is regarded as 'first among equals' in the cabinet, and major policy decisions are taken collectively, with ministers holding genuine responsibility for their departments. Collective ministerial responsibility ensures that once a decision is made, all cabinet members must publicly support it or resign. In recent decades, many commentators argue that the UK has moved towards a prime ministerial government, where the prime minister dominates policy‑making, bypasses cabinet on key decisions, uses special advisers, and relies on a personalised mandate from a general election. This debate is central to the study of the executive. Candidates should weigh evidence on both sides, considering factors such as the size of the parliamentary majority, the prime minister’s media profile, and the role of coalition or minority government.

在传统的内阁制政府模式下，首相被视为内阁中“同侪之首”，重大政策决定由集体作出，各位大臣对自己的部门承担切实的责任。集体大臣责任制确保一旦做出决定，所有内阁成员必须公开支持，否则就须辞职。近几十年来，许多评论人士认为英国已走向首相制政府，首相主导政策制定，在关键决策上绕过内阁，使用特别顾问，并倚仗大选赋予的个性化授权。这一争论是研究行政机构的核心。考生应权衡双方的证据，考虑诸如议会多数席位的规模、首相的媒体形象以及联合政府或少数派政府的作用等因素。

10. Judicial Review and Ultra Vires | 司法审查与越权

Judicial review is the process by which courts examine the lawfulness of decisions made by public bodies, including government ministers. It does not consider the merits of a policy but whether the decision‑maker acted within their legal powers. The doctrine of ultra vires – meaning 'beyond the powers' – is a key ground for review. If a public body takes an action that goes beyond the authority granted by Parliament, the court can quash the decision. Other grounds include procedural impropriety, irrationality, and breach of human rights under the Human Rights Act 1998. Judicial review is a vital component of the rule of law, ensuring that the executive does not abuse its powers. In UK politics, tensions sometimes arise between the judiciary and ministers when judges are perceived to be interfering with democratic decision‑making.

司法审查是法院审查公共机构（包括政府大臣）所做决定的合法性的过程。它不审查政策的优劣，而是判定决策者是否在法律权限内行事。越权原则——意为“超越权限”——是审查的关键依据之一。如果公共机构采取了超出议会所授权限的行为，法院可以撤销该决定。其他审查依据还包括程序不当、不合理以及违反1998年《人权法案》所保障的权利。司法审查是法治的重要组成部分，确保行政机构不滥用权力。在英国政治中，当法官被认为干涉了民主决策时，司法与大臣之间有时会出现紧张关系。

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