📚 Year 12 Cambridge Sociology: Key Terms Memory Guide | Year 12 剑桥社会学：核心术语速记指南
Mastering sociology starts with a firm grasp of its language. This guide breaks down the core terms you will encounter in Year 12 Cambridge Sociology, pairing clear English definitions with Chinese explanations. Each concept is linked to a memorable hook so you can recall it quickly in essays and exams.
掌握社会学从牢固掌握其语言开始。本指南拆解了 Year 12 剑桥社会学课程中将遇到的核心术语，为每个清晰的英文定义配以中文解释。每个概念都关联着一个易于记忆的线索，让你能在论文和考试中迅速回想起来。
1. Socialisation and Culture | 社会化与文化
Socialisation is the lifelong process through which individuals learn and internalise the norms, values and behaviours expected in their society. The family delivers primary socialisation in early childhood, while schools, media and peer groups provide secondary socialisation later on.
社会化是个体一生中学习并内化其社会所期望的行为规范、价值观和习俗的过程。家庭在幼儿期提供初级社会化，而学校、媒体和同辈群体则在之后提供次级社会化。
Agents of socialisation are the people and institutions that shape our social selves. Culture, meanwhile, refers to the whole way of life of a society — its language, beliefs, customs and material objects. A subculture is a group whose values and norms differ from the mainstream but still exist within the larger society.
社会化主体是塑造我们社会自我的个人和机构。文化则指一个社会整体的生活方式——包括语言、信仰、习俗和物质对象。亚文化是指其价值观和规范与主流不同、但仍存在于更大社会中的群体。
Memory Tip: Link 'socialisation' to 'society's lessons'. Picture primary socialisation as the 'primary school of the family' and secondary socialisation as the 'second stage' delivered by teachers and friends. Think of culture as a 'lens' through which we see the world.
记忆提示：将 'socialisation' 与 'society's lessons'（社会的课程）联系起来。把初级社会化想象成 '家庭小学'，次级社会化是老师和朋友提供的 '第二阶段'。把文化看作我们观察世界的 '透镜'。
| English Term | 中文术语 | Quick Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| Socialisation | 社会化 | Learning society's ways |
| Primary socialisation | 初级社会化 | Early family-based learning |
| Secondary socialisation | 次级社会化 | Later learning via school, peers, media |
| Agents of socialisation | 社会化主体 | People/institutions that teach norms |
| Culture | 文化 | Way of life of a group |
| Subculture | 亚文化 | Distinctive group within larger culture |
2. Norms, Values and Beliefs | 规范、价值观与信仰
Norms are unwritten rules that guide everyday behaviour — for instance, queuing politely. Values are deeply held principles about what is good or desirable, such as honesty or respect. Beliefs are specific ideas people hold to be true, which may be religious, scientific or moral.
规范是指导日常行为的不成文规则，例如礼貌地排队。价值观是关于什么是好的或值得追求的深层原则，如诚实或尊重。信仰是人们认为正确的具体观念，可能是宗教的、科学的或道德的。
Mores (pronounced 'mor-ays') are norms with a strong moral significance, often backed by law. Folkways are less serious norms that govern everyday courtesies. Sanctions are reactions, either positive or negative, that enforce norms — a smile is a positive sanction, a prison sentence a negative one.
民德是具有强烈道德意义的规范，通常有法律支持。民俗则是约束日常礼节的较轻规范。制裁是执行规范的正向或负向反应——微笑是正向制裁，监禁是负向制裁。
Use the acronym 'NVF' (Norms, Values, Folkways) to recall the building blocks of social order. Associate mores with 'morality' and folkways with 'folk's daily ways'. Remember sanctions as 'social rewards and punishments'— the carrot and the stick.
用首字母缩略词 'NVF'（规范、价值观、民俗）来回忆社会秩序的基石。将民德与 'morality'（道德）联想，将民俗与 'folk's daily ways'（百姓的日常方式）联想。记住制裁是 '社会奖惩'——胡萝卜加大棒。
3. Identity: Personal and Social | 身份：个人与社会
Identity is how we see ourselves and how others see us. Personal identity refers to the unique sense of self, including traits, hobbies and life history. Social identity comes from group membership — being a student, a daughter, a fan of a music genre.
身份是我们如何看待自己以及他人如何看待我们。个人身份指独特的自我感，包括性格特征、爱好和生活史。社会身份来自群体归属——作为一名学生、一个女儿、某个音乐流派的粉丝。
Charles Cooley's looking-glass self suggests we develop our self-concept by imagining how we appear to others. If we think others see us as funny, we may adopt that trait. A strong identity can be spoiled by stigma — a negative label that discredits an individual.
查尔斯·库利的镜中我概念认为，我们通过想象自己在他人眼中的形象来发展自我概念。如果我们认为他人视我们为幽默的，我们可能会采纳这一特质。一个稳固的身份可能被污名所损害——一种贬损个人的负面标签。
Visualise identity as a jigsaw: personal identity pieces are unique to you, social identity pieces are shared with groups. For the looking-glass self, imagine a mirror that reflects not your face but the judgments you think others make.
将身份想象成一幅拼图：个人身份的碎片是你独有的，社会身份的碎片是与你所属群体共用的。对于镜中我，想象一面镜子，反射的不是你的脸，而是你认为他人对你所做的评价。
4. Roles and Statuses | 角色与地位
A status is a social position an individual occupies. Ascribed status is fixed at birth or involuntarily assumed, such as 'prince' or 'daughter'. Achieved status is earned through personal effort, like 'doctor' or 'athlete'. A master status is the one that dominates all others, e.g. 'criminal' or 'celebrity'.
地位是个体占据的社会位置。先赋地位是出生时确定或非自愿获得的，如 '王子' 或 '女儿'。自致地位是通过个人努力获得的，如 '医生' 或 '运动员'。首要地位是支配所有其他地位的那个，例如 '罪犯' 或 '名人'。
A role is the behaviour expected of someone with a particular status. Role conflict happens when two or more roles have incompatible demands, like being a parent and a full-time employee. Role strain occurs when the demands within a single role become overwhelming.
角色是对拥有特定地位的人所期待的行为。当两个或多个角色有相互冲突的要求时，就发生角色冲突，例如同时作为父母和全职员工。当单一角色内的要求变得不堪重负时，就出现角色紧张。
Think of status as a 'label on a seat' and role as the 'script' you must perform when seated. To remember ascribed vs achieved, use the rhyme: 'A-scribed = assigned, A-chieved = accomplished.' For role conflict, picture yourself being pulled in two directions.
把地位想象成座位上的 '标签'，角色则是你坐下后必须表演的 '剧本'。记忆先赋与自致地位，用押韵法：'A-scribed = assigned (被分配的)，A-chieved = accomplished (得到的)。' 对角色冲突，想象自己被往两个方向拉扯。
5. Social Control and Deviance | 社会控制与越轨
Social control refers to the mechanisms society uses to ensure conformity. Formal social control is enforced by authorised agents such as the police, courts and prison systems. Informal control is exerted by family, peers and community through gossip, praise or shaming.
社会控制指的是社会用来确保遵从的机制。正式社会控制由警察、法院和监狱系统等授权机构实施。非正式控制由家庭、同辈和社区通过闲话、赞扬或羞辱来施加。
Deviance is any behaviour that violates social norms. It is not always criminal; wearing unusual clothes can be deviant. Labelling theory argues that deviance is created when a label is successfully applied to someone — 'rule-breaker' — and that person may then internalise the label, leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy.
越轨是指任何违反社会规范的行为。它并不总是犯罪；穿着奇装异服也可能是越轨。标签理论认为，越轨是在某个标签成功贴到某人身上时被创造出来的——如 '违规者'，这个人随后可能内化该标签，导致自我实现的预言。
Stigma is a powerfully negative label that changes a person's self-concept and social identity. Erving Goffman distinguished between discredited stigma (visible, e.g. physical disability) and discreditable stigma (hidden, e.g. mental illness).
污名是一种强烈的负面标签，会改变一个人的自我概念和社会身份。欧文·戈夫曼区分了丢脸污名（可见的，如身体残疾）和会丢脸污名（隐藏的，如精神疾病）。
Quick recall: formal control = 'State power', informal control = 'raised eyebrows'. For labelling, remember the idea 'if you're labelled, you're enabled' — the label makes the behaviour more likely. Picture stigma as a 'scarlet letter' that marks the individual.
快速记忆：正式控制 = '国家权力'，非正式控制 = '扬起的眉毛'。对于标签理论，记住 '一旦被贴上标签，你就被开启了这种行为'。将污名想象成一个标记个体的 '红字'。
6. Power and Authority | 权力与权威
Power is the ability to make others do what you want, even against their will. Authority is legitimate power — power that people accept as right. Max Weber identified three ideal types of authority: traditional (based on customs, e.g. monarchy), charismatic (based on the leader's exceptional qualities, e.g. revolutionary figure), and legal-rational (based on formal rules and laws, e.g. elected government).
权力是使他人做你想要的事情的能力，即便违背其意愿。权威是正当化的权力——人们认可为合法的权力。马克斯·韦伯划分了三种理想类型的权威：传统型（基于习俗，如君主制）、魅力型（基于领袖的非凡品质，如革命人物）和法理型（基于正式规则和法律，如民选政府）。
Coercion is the use of force or threats to achieve compliance, which is not seen as legitimate. Sociologists also explore power in everyday relationships, such as the power dynamics within families or the influence of the media in shaping public opinion.
强制是通过使用武力或威胁来达成服从，这并不被视为合法。社会学家还探讨日常关系中的权力，如家庭内部的权力动态或媒体在塑造公众舆论方面的影响力。
microphone, legal-rational = gavel. To separate power from authority, recall that power is 'raw ability', while authority is 'power wearing a uniform of legitimacy'.
将每种权威类型与一个符号联想：传统型 = 皇冠，魅力型 = 麦克风，法理型 = 法槌。要区分权力与权威，记住权力是 '原始能力'，而权威是 '披上合法性外衣的权力'。
7. Social Stratification | 社会分层
Social stratification refers to the hierarchical arrangement of individuals into social classes, castes or other layers. Social class is typically based on economic factors like wealth, income and occupation. In a class system, social mobility — movement up or down the social ladder — is possible, unlike in a closed caste system or in slavery where status is fixed.
社会分层是指将个体按社会阶级、种姓或其他层级进行等级排列。社会阶级通常基于财富、收入和职业等经济因素。在阶级体系中，社会流动——在社会阶梯上的上升或下降——是可能的，这与封闭的种姓制度或奴隶制中地位固定不同。
Life chances refer to the opportunities an individual has to achieve things valued in society, such as good health, education and housing. According to Max Weber, life chances are heavily influenced by class position. Marxists argue that class is determined by one's relationship to the means of production, creating a divide between the bourgeoisie (owners) and the proletariat (workers).
生活机会指个体获得社会重视之物的机会，如健康、教育和住房。据韦伯，生活机会很大程度上受阶级地位影响。马克思主义者认为阶级由与生产资料的关系决定，造成了资产阶级（所有者）和无产阶级（工人）之间的鸿沟。
Think of stratification as 'layers of a cake' where the top gets the best slices. To memorise life chances, use the mnemonic 'HELP' (Health, Education, Lifestyle, Property). For Marxist class, visualise a factory: owner vs. worker.
把分层想象成 '蛋糕的层次'，顶层得到最好的部分。为记忆生活机会，用首字母 'HELP'（健康、教育、生活方式、财产）。对于马克思主义阶级观，想象一个工厂：所有者 vs. 工人。
8. Gender and Ethnicity | 性别与种族
Sex refers to the biological differences between males and females, while gender involves the social and cultural characteristics associated with being masculine or feminine. Gender roles are the expectations about how men and women should behave; these are learned through gendered socialisation.
生理性别指男女间的生物学差异，而社会性别涉及与男性气质或女性气质相关的社会文化特征。性别角色是关于男女应如何行为的期待；这些通过性别社会化习得。
Ethnicity denotes shared culture, language, history and ancestry. Race is a socially constructed category based on perceived physical differences. Institutional racism occurs when the everyday practices and policies of organisations produce systematic disadvantage for ethnic minorities, even without individual prejudice.
种族指共享的文化、语言、历史和祖先。人种是基于感知到的生理差异的社会建构范畴。制度性种族主义发生在组织的日常实践和政策对少数族裔产生系统性不利时，即便不存在个人偏见。
Use the bridge 'Gender is to sex as nurture is to nature.' For ethnicity, think of 'ethnic = cultural DNA' onal racism, visualise a building with doors wide open for some and barely ajar for others — not because of a sign, but because of how the building was designed.
用一句话搭桥：'性别之于生理性别，如同后天培养之于先天本质。' 对于种族，记忆 'ethnic = 文化 DNA'。要回忆制度性种族主义，想象一栋建筑：对一些人门是敞开的，对另一些人却仅略开一条缝——不是因为门口的牌子，而是建筑本身的设计使然。
9. Globalisation and Social Change | 全球化与社会变迁
Globalisation is the increasing interconnectedness of the world through economic, political and cultural flows. It leads to cultural hybridity — the blending of elements from different cultures to create new forms, such as fusion cuisine or global pop music.
全球化是通过经济、政治和文化流动使世界日益相互联系的过程。它带来了文化杂糅——将不同文化的元素融合以创造新形式，如融合菜系或全球流行音乐。
Social change refers to the significant alteration of social structures and cultural patterns over time. Sociologists contrast traditional society (based on custom, agriculture, close-knit communities) with modern society (industrial, urban, bureaucratic) and postmodern society (fragmented, media-saturated, globalised).
社会变迁指社会结构和文化模式随时间发生的显著改变。社会学家将传统社会（基于习俗、农业、紧密社区）与现代社会（工业化、城市化、官僚制）和后现代社会（碎片化、媒体饱和、全球化）进行对比。
Globalisation = 'globe' + 'isation'. Remember cultural hybridity as a 'fusion dish' ditional to modern to postmodern, picture a timeline: village, factory, smartphone screen.
全球化 = 'globe' + 'isation'。记住文化杂糅如同 '混合菜肴'。要记忆从传统到现代再到后现代的演进，画一条时间线：村庄、工厂、智能手机屏幕。
10. Research Methods Key Terms | 研究方法关键术语
Validity concerns whether research measures what it claims to measure. Reliability is about consistency — if the study were repeated, would the results be the same? Representativeness asks how well the sample mirrors the wider population.
效度关乎研究是否测量了其声称要测量的东西。信度关乎一致性——如果研究被重复进行，结果会相同吗？代表性探询样本在多大程度上反映了更广泛的人口。
Quantitative data is numerical and often linked to large-scale surveys and statistics; qualitative data is non-numerical, providing depth through interviews and observations. Sampling methods include random sampling (everyone has an equal chance), stratified sampling (population divided into groups, e.g. by age), and snowball sampling (participants recruit others).
定量数据是数值型的，通常与大规模调查和统计相关；定性数据是非数值的，通过访谈和观察提供深度见解。抽样方法包括随机抽样（每人机会均等）、分层抽样（按年龄等将总体分组）和滚雪球抽样（参与者招募他人）。
derations require informed consent, confidentiality and avoidance of harm. Use the letters 'VRR' Validity, Reliability, Representativeness) to lock in the three core quality criteria. For 'quant vs qual', remember 'quantity = numbers, quality = words'.
试点研究是小规模试用以测试程序。伦理考量要求知情同意、保密和避免伤害。用字母 'VRR' 锁定三个核心质量标准。要区分定量与定性，记住 'quantity = 数字，quality = 语言'。
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