📚 Vocabulary & Terminology Fast-Memorisation Guide for Cambridge Year 12 Biology | 剑桥Year 12生物词汇术语速记指南
Mastering the dense terminology of Cambridge Year 12 Biology can feel like learning a new language. This guide is designed to accelerate your memorisation by breaking down key terms into logical groups, offering root-word tips, vivid analogies, and direct comparisons between commonly confused concepts. Use these pairing paragraphs – English followed immediately by Chinese – to build a solid bilingual bank of biological vocabulary.
掌握剑桥Year 12生物学繁多的术语就像学习一门新语言。本指南旨在通过将关键术语分成逻辑组、提供词根提示、生动类比以及直接对比易混淆概念，来加速你的记忆。使用这些英中紧接的配对段落，构建一个扎实的双语生物词汇库。
1. Cell Structure Terminology | 细胞结构术语速记
Mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion) are double‑membraned organelles that carry out aerobic respiration, producing ATP as the cell’s energy currency. Think of them as the ‘power plants’ of the cell.
线粒体（单数 mitochondrion）是双层膜细胞器，进行有氧呼吸，产生作为细胞能量货币的 ATP。可将其想象为细胞的“发电厂”。
The nucleus is enclosed by a nuclear envelope with pores and houses the cell’s genetic material. It directs protein synthesis by sending mRNA messages to ribosomes.
细胞核由带核孔的核膜包裹，容纳遗传物质。它通过向核糖体发送 mRNA 信息来指导蛋白质合成。
Ribosomes, composed of rRNA and protein, are the sites of translation. 80S ribosomes are found in eukaryotes, while 70S ribosomes are typical of prokaryotes, mitochondria and chloroplasts.
核糖体由 rRNA 和蛋白质组成，是翻译的场所。80S 核糖体存在于真核生物中，70S 核糖体则是原核生物、线粒体和叶绿体的典型特征。
- Lysosomes are membrane‑bound sacs of hydrolytic enzymes that digest worn‑out organelles and engulfed particles. 溶酶体是含有水解酶的膜囊，消化衰老的细胞器和被吞噬的颗粒。
- Golgi apparatus modifies, sorts and packages proteins into vesicles for secretion. 高尔基体修饰、分拣蛋白质并将其包装进囊泡进行分泌。
A quick root hack: cyt- = cell, -plasm = formed material; so cytoplasm is the jelly‑like material inside a cell. Similarly, chloro- (green) + -plast (body) gives chloroplast, the site of photosynthesis.
快速词根技巧：cyt- = 细胞，-plasm = 形成的物质；因此 cytoplasm 就是细胞内胶状的物质。同样，chloro-（绿）+ -plast（体）构成 chloroplast，即光合作用的场所。
2. Biological Molecules | 生物分子速记
Carbohydrates contain C, H and O in a 1:2:1 ratio. Monosaccharides like glucose are the monomers. Two monosaccharides join via a glycosidic bond, releasing water in a condensation reaction.
碳水化合物含有 C、H、O，比例为 1:2:1。单糖如葡萄糖是单体。两个单糖通过糖苷键连接，缩合反应中释放水。
Lipids are non‑polar, hydrophobic molecules made of glycerol and fatty acids. Triglycerides store energy; phospholipids form the bilayer of cell membranes because their phosphate heads are hydrophilic while fatty acid tails are hydrophobic.
脂质是非极性、疏水性分子，由甘油和脂肪酸构成。甘油三酯储存能量；磷脂构成细胞膜的双分子层，因为它们的磷酸头部亲水而脂肪酸尾部疏水。
Proteins are polymers of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. The primary structure is the sequence of amino acids; secondary structure involves alpha‑helices and beta‑pleated sheets held by hydrogen bonds; tertiary structure is the 3D folding due to disulfide bridges, ionic bonds and hydrophobic interactions; quaternary structure arises when multiple polypeptide chains associate, as in haemoglobin.
蛋白质是由肽键连接的氨基酸聚合物。一级结构是氨基酸序列；二级结构涉及由氢键维持的 α‑螺旋和 β‑折叠；三级结构是因二硫键、离子键和疏水相互作用形成的三维折叠；四级结构由多条多肽链结合产生，如血红蛋白。
When revising, memorise the bond names: glycosidic (carbs), ester (lipids), peptide (proteins) and phosphodiester (nucleic acids).
复习时记住键的名称：糖苷键（碳水化合物）、酯键（脂质）、肽键（蛋白质）和 磷酸二酯键（核酸）。
3. Enzyme Vocabulary | 酶相关词汇
An enzyme is a biological catalyst that lowers activation energy without being consumed. The active site is a specific region where the substrate binds, often described by the lock‑and‑key or induced‑fit model.
酶是一种生物催化剂，能降低活化能而不被消耗。活性位点是底物结合的特定区域，常用 锁钥模型 或 诱导契合模型 来描述。
The term Vmax refers to the maximum rate of reaction when all enzyme active sites are saturated with substrate. Km (Michaelis constant) is the substrate concentration at half Vmax; a low Km indicates high affinity for the substrate.
Vmax 指当所有酶活性位点被底物饱和时的最大反应速率。Km（米氏常数）是达到一半 Vmax 时的底物浓度；低 Km 表示对底物亲和力高。
Competitive inhibitors resemble the substrate and bind to the active site, an effect overcome by increasing substrate concentration. Non‑competitive inhibitors bind elsewhere (allosteric site) and change the enzyme’s shape, reducing Vmax but leaving Km unchanged.
竞争性抑制剂与底物结构相似，结合于活性位点，增加底物浓度可克服其影响。非竞争性抑制剂结合在其他部位（别构位点），改变酶的形状，降低 Vmax 但不改变 Km。
Denaturation occurs when the enzyme’s tertiary structure is disrupted by extreme pH or high temperature, breaking hydrogen and ionic bonds. The active site is permanently altered.
变性发生在极端 pH 或高温破坏酶的三级结构时，氢键和离子键断裂，活性位点永久改变。
4. Cell Membrane & Transport | 细胞膜与转运
The fluid‑mosaic model describes the cell membrane as a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins, cholesterol (in animal cells) and glycocalyx. ‘Fluid’ refers to the movement of phospholipids; ‘mosaic’ refers to the scattered proteins.
流动镶嵌模型将细胞膜描述为磷脂双分子层，其间嵌有蛋白质、胆固醇（动物细胞）和糖萼。“流动”指磷脂的运动；“镶嵌”指分散的蛋白质。
Simple diffusion is the net movement of small, non‑polar molecules (e.g. O₂, CO₂) down their concentration gradient through the bilayer, requiring no energy.
简单扩散是小非极性分子（如 O₂、CO₂）顺浓度梯度穿过双层的净运动，不需要能量。
Facilitated diffusion uses channel or carrier proteins to transport ions or polar molecules down their gradient without ATP. Examples include aquaporins for water and GLUT transporters for glucose.
协助扩散利用通道蛋白或载体蛋白沿浓度梯度转运离子或极性分子，不消耗 ATP。例如水的 aquaporins 和葡萄糖的 GLUT 转运蛋白。
Active transport moves substances against their concentration gradient using carrier proteins and ATP. The sodium‑potassium pump (Na⁺/K⁺‑ATPase) expels 3 Na⁺ out and brings 2 K⁺ in, helping maintain resting membrane potential.
主动运输利用载体蛋白和 ATP 逆浓度梯度移动物质。钠钾泵 (Na⁺/K⁺‑ATPase) 排出 3 个 Na⁺，摄入 2 个 K⁺，有助于维持静息膜电位。
Endocytosis (phagocytosis for solids, pinocytosis for liquids) and exocytosis are bulk transport processes that use vesicles, requiring ATP.
胞吞作用（固体的吞噬作用，液体的胞饮作用）和 胞吐作用 是利用囊泡且需 ATP 的批量运输过程。
5. Cell Division: Mitosis & Meiosis | 细胞分裂：有丝分裂与减数分裂
Mitosis produces two genetically identical diploid daughter cells for growth and repair. It consists of prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase (PMAT). Cytokinesis follows, splitting the cytoplasm.
有丝分裂产生两个遗传相同的二倍体子细胞，用于生长和修复。它包括前期、中期、后期和末期（PMAT）。随后发生胞质分裂，分开细胞质。
Meiosis reduces the chromosome number by half, yielding four genetically varied haploid gametes. It involves two divisions: meiosis I separates homologous chromosomes; meiosis II separates sister chromatids.
减数分裂将染色体数目减半，产生四个遗传多样的单倍体配子。它包含两次分裂：减数分裂 I 分离同源染色体；减数分裂 II 分离姐妹染色单体。
The key source of variation in meiosis is crossing over (exchange of alleles between non‑sister chromatids at chiasmata) in prophase I, and independent assortment of homologous chromosomes in metaphase I.
减数分裂中变异的主要来源是前期 I 的 交叉（非姐妹染色单体在交叉处交换等位基因）和中期 I 的 独立分配 同源染色体。
A common confusion: homologous chromosomes are pairs of the same size, shape and gene loci, one from each parent. Sister chromatids are identical copies of a single chromosome joined at the centromere.
常见混淆：同源染色体 是大小、形态和基因位点相同的成对染色体，一条来自父方，一条来自母方。姐妹染色单体 是一条染色体通过复制产生的两个相同拷贝，在着丝粒处相连。
6. Nucleic Acids & DNA Replication | 核酸与DNA复制
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a double‑stranded helix built from nucleotides containing deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate group and nitrogenous bases (A, T, C, G). The two strands run antiparallel with complementary base pairing: A‑T (two hydrogen bonds) and C‑G (three hydrogen bonds).
DNA（脱氧核糖核酸）是双链螺旋，由含有脱氧核糖、磷酸基团和含氮碱基（A、T、C、G）的核苷酸构成。两条链反向平行，通过互补碱基配对：A‑T（两个氢键）和 C‑G（三个氢键）。
DNA replication is semi‑conservative: each new molecule contains one original strand and one newly synthesised strand. The enzyme DNA helicase unwinds the helix, and DNA polymerase adds complementary nucleotides in the 5’→3’ direction, requiring a primer.
DNA 复制是半保留的：每个新分子含有一条原始链和一条新合成的链。DNA 解旋酶 解开螺旋，DNA 聚合酶 沿 5’→3’ 方向添加互补核苷酸，需要引物。
The leading strand is synthesised continuously; the lagging strand is made in short Okazaki fragments, later joined by DNA ligase.
前导链连续合成；滞后链以短的 冈崎片段 合成，随后由 DNA 连接酶 连接。
RNA differs from DNA: it is single‑stranded, contains ribose sugar, and uses uracil (U) instead of thymine (T). Types include mRNA (messenger), tRNA (transfer) and rRNA (ribosomal).
RNA 与 DNA 不同：单链，含核糖，用尿嘧啶 (U) 代替胸腺嘧啶 (T)。类型包括 mRNA（信使）、tRNA（转运）和 rRNA（核糖体）。
7. Protein Synthesis | 蛋白质合成速记
Transcription occurs in the nucleus: DNA unwinds and one strand acts as a template. RNA polymerase synthesises a complementary pre‑mRNA strand. In eukaryotes, introns are removed by splicing to form mature mRNA.
转录发生在细胞核中：DNA 解旋，一条链作为模板。RNA 聚合酶合成互补的前体 mRNA 链。在真核生物中，通过剪接去除内含子形成成熟 mRNA。
Translation takes place at ribosomes in the cytoplasm. mRNA codons (three‑base sequences) are read, and tRNA molecules with complementary anticodons bring specific amino acids. The ribosome catalyses peptide bond formation.
翻译在细胞质中的核糖体上进行。解读 mRNA 的密码子（三碱基序列），带有互补反密码子的 tRNA 携带特定氨基酸。核糖体催化肽键形成。
The genetic code is degenerate (multiple codons can specify the same amino acid) and universal (shared by nearly all organisms). Start codon AUG codes for methionine; stop codons (UAA, UAG, UGA) terminate translation.
遗传密码具有 简并性（多个密码子可编码同一氨基酸）和 普遍性（几乎所有生物共用）。起始密码子 AUG 编码甲硫氨酸；终止密码子（UAA、UAG、UGA）终止翻译。
Remember the central dogma: DNA → RNA → Protein. An easy mnemonic: ‘Deoxy carries the code, Ribose reads the code, Protein performs the work.’
记住中心法则：DNA → RNA → 蛋白质。简单助记：“脱氧携带密码，核糖读取密码，蛋白质执行工作。”
8. Genetics & Inheritance Patterns | 遗传学与遗传模式
Genotype is the genetic makeup of an organism; phenotype is the observable characteristic. Allele is an alternative form of a gene. A dominant allele masks the effect of a recessive allele in a heterozygote.
基因型是生物体的遗传组成；表现型是可观察的特征。等位基因是基因的替代形式。显性等位基因在杂合子中掩盖隐性等位基因的效应。
Monohybrid cross a cross between two heterozygotes (Tt × Tt), the expected phenotypic ratio for a dominant‑recessive trait is 3:1. A test cross (with homozygous recessive) reveals an unknown genotype.
单因子杂交研究一个性状。在两个杂合子 (Tt × Tt) 杂交中，显性‑隐性性状的预期表现型比例为 3:1。测交（与隐性纯合子杂交）可揭示未知基因型。
Codominance: both alleles are equally expressed (e.g. AB blood type). Incomplete dominance: blending of traits (e.g. pink snapdragons from red and white parents). Sex‑linkage: genes located on the sex chromosomes, often X‑linked, causing disorders like haemophilia to appear more frequently in males.
共显性：两个等位基因同等表达（如 AB 血型）。不完全显性：性状混合（如红花与白花亲本产生粉红色金鱼草）。伴性遗传：位于性染色体上的基因，通常为 X 连锁，导致血友病等疾病在男性中更常见。
Dihybrid cross r two heterozygous parents (RrYy × RrYy) is 9:3:3:1, demonstrating independent assortment.
双因子杂交遵循位于不同染色体上的两个性状。两个杂合亲本 (RrYy × RrYy) 的预期表现型比例为 9:3:3:1，验证了独立分配定律。
| Term | Definition | 术语定义 |
|---|---|---|
| Homozygous | Two identical alleles for a gene (e.g. TT or tt) | 纯合子：基因的两个等位基因相同 (TT 或 tt) |
| Heterozygous | Two different alleles (e.g. Tt) | 杂合子：两个不同等位基因 (Tt) |
9. Evolution & Speciation | 进化与物种形成
Natural selection is the mechanism by which individuals with advantageous alleles are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing those alleles to the next generation. Over time, allele frequencies change in a population.
自然选择是具优势等位基因的个体更可能存活和繁殖，并将这些等位基因传递给下一代的机制。随时间推移，种群等位基因频率发生变化。
Adaptation can be structural (e.g. long neck of giraffe), physiological (venom production) or behavioural (migration). These traits enhance fitness – the ability to survive and produce fertile offspring.
适应可以是结构上的（如长颈鹿的长颈）、生理上的（毒液产生）或行为上的（迁徙）。这些性状提高适应度，即生存并产生可育后代的能力。
Allopatric speciation occurs when a population is geographically separated, leading to reproductive isolation and eventually the formation of new species. Sympatric speciation happens without geographical barriers, often through polyploidy in plants or behavioural isolation.
异域物种形成发生在种群地理隔离时，导致生殖隔离并最终形成新物种。同域物种形成没有地理障碍，常通过植物多倍体或行为隔离发生。
Binomial nomenclature (genus species, e.g. Homo sapiens) gives each species a universal scientific name. Species is often defined as a group of organisms that can interbreed to produce fertile offspring.
双名法（属名 + 种加词，如 Homo sapiens）为每个物种提供通用的学名。物种通常被定义为能够相互交配并产生可育后代的一群生物。
10. Classification & Taxonomy | 分类与系统学
The hierarchical order of taxonomic ranks: Domain – Kingdom – Phylum – Class – Order – Family – Genus – Species. A mnemonic: ‘Dear King Philip Came Over For Good Soup’ helps recall the sequence.
分类等级从大到小：域 – 界 – 门 – 纲 – 目 – 科 – 属 – 种。助记短语“Dear King Philip Came Over For Good Soup”有助于记住顺序。
The three domains are Bacteria (prokaryotic, cell wall of peptidoglycan), Archaea (prokaryotic, often extremophiles, cell walls without peptidoglycan) and Eukarya (eukaryotic cells, includes plants, animals, fungi and protists).
三域为 细菌域（原核，细胞壁含肽聚糖）、古菌域（原核，常为极端微生物，细胞壁无肽聚糖）和 真核域（真核细胞，包括植物、动物、真菌和原生生物）。
Phylogeny is the evolutionary history of a species or group, represented by a cladogram or phylogenetic tree. Nodes indicate common ancestors. The more recent a common ancestor, the closer the relationship.
系统发育是一个物种或类群的进化历史，由进化树或支序图表示。节点代表共同祖先。共同祖先越近，亲缘关系越密切。
Homologous structures (e.g. pentadactyl limb of vertebrates) arise from divergent evolution, sharing a common ancestry. Analogous structures (wings of bird and insect) are products of convergent evolution, where similar selection pressures produce similar features without common ancestry.
同源结构（如脊椎动物的五指型附肢）源于歧异进化，有共同祖先。类似结构（鸟和昆虫的翅膀）是趋同进化的产物，相似的选择压力在没有共同祖先的情况下产生相似特征。
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