📚 Year 12 Edexcel Business Formula & Key Concepts Quick Reference Handbook | 爱德思 12 年级商务公式与定理速查手册
This handbook offers a concise, bilingual reference to all essential formulas and key theoretical principles required for Edexcel Year 12 Business. It covers Theme 1 (Marketing and People) and Theme 2 (Managing Business Activities), helping you apply quantitative techniques and interpret business performance efficiently.
这本手册提供了爱德思 12 年级商务课程中所有必备公式与核心理论要点的双语简明参考，涵盖主题 1（市场营销与人员）和主题 2（管理商业活动），帮助你高效运用定量方法并解读企业绩效。
1. Price Elasticity of Demand (PED) | 需求价格弹性 (PED)
PED measures the responsiveness of quantity demanded to a change in price. It is calculated as:
PED 衡量需求量对价格变化的反应程度。其计算公式为：
PED = % change in quantity demanded / % change in price
PED = 需求量变动百分比 / 价格变动百分比
y occurs when PED = 1. PED is always treated as a positive value, ignoring the minus sign.
若 PED > 1，需求富有弹性（奢侈品）；若 PED < 1，需求缺乏弹性（必需品）。当 PED = 1 时为单位弹性。PED 通常取绝对值，忽略负号。
2. Revenue and PED | 收入与需求弹性
venue (TR) = Price × Quantity sold. Use PED to predict revenue changes when price changes:
总收入(TR) = 价格 × 销售量。当价格变动时，可用 PED 预测收入变化：
If demand is elastic, a price increase reduces TR, and a price decrease raises TR. If demand is inelastic, a price increase raises TR, and a price decrease lowers TR.
若需求富有弹性，涨价会减少总收入，降价则会增加总收入。若需求缺乏弹性，涨价会增加总收入，降价则会减少总收入。
3. Total Revenue and Average Revenue | 总收入与平均收入
Total Revenue (TR) is the total income from sales. Average Revenue (AR) is the revenue per unit sold, which equals the selling price.
总收入 (TR) 是销售的总收入。平均收入 (AR) 是每单位销售的收益，等于售价。
TR = Price × Quantity
TR = 价格 × 数量
AR = TR / Quantity sold = Price
AR = 总收入 / 销售量 = 价格
4. Total Cost, Fixed Cost and Variable Cost | 总成本、固定成本与可变成本
Total Cost (TC) is the sum of all costs incurred in production. Total Fixed Cost (TFC) does not change with output (e.g., rent). Total Variable Cost (TVC) changes directly with output (e.g., raw materials).
总成本 (TC) 是生产中发生的全部成本之和。总固定成本 (TFC) 不随产量变化（如租金）。总可变成本 (TVC) 随产量直接变化（如原材料）。
TC = TFC + TVC
TC = TFC + TVC（总成本=总固定成本+总可变成本）
ost) = TC / Output. Average fixed cost and average variable cost can be derived similarly.
平均成本（单位成本）= 总成本 / 产量。同理可得平均固定成本和平均可变成本。
5. Profit and Types of Profit | 利润与利润类型
Profit = Total Revenue − Total Cost. Businesses measure profit at different stages:
利润 = 总收入 − 总成本。企业从不同层次衡量利润：
Gross Profit = Sales Revenue − Cost of Sales
毛利润 = 销售收入 − 销售成本
Operating Profit = Gross Profit − Overheads (e.g., admin expenses)
营业利润 = 毛利润 − 间接费用（如行政开支）
Net Profit = Operating Profit − Interest and Tax
净利润 = 营业利润 − 利息和税金
6. Profit Margins | 利润率
Profit margins express profit as a percentage of revenue, allowing comparison between businesses and over time.
利润率将利润表示为收入的百分比，便于企业间及跨期比较。
Gross Profit Margin = (Gross Profit / Sales Revenue) × 100
毛利率 = (毛利润 / 销售收入) × 100
Operating Profit Margin = (Operating Profit / Sales Revenue) × 100
营业利润率 = (营业利润 / 销售收入) × 100
Net Profit Margin = (Net Profit / Sales Revenue) × 100
净利率 = (净利润 / 销售收入) × 100
7. Break-even Analysis | 盈亏平衡分析
cost (no profit, no loss). Contribution per unit = Selling price − Variable cost per unit.
盈亏平衡点是指总收入等于总成本的产量水平（不赚不赔）。单位贡献毛益 = 售价 − 单位可变成本。
Break-even output = Total Fixed Costs / Contribution per unit
盈亏平衡产量 = 总固定成本 / 单位贡献毛益
Actual output − Break-even output. It shows how much sales can fall before a loss occurs.
安全边际 = 实际产量 − 盈亏平衡产量。它表示在亏损发生前销售量可以下降多少。
8. Return on Investment (ROI) | 投资回报率
ROI measures the efficiency of an investment, comparing profit generated to the capital invested.
ROI 衡量投资效率，将产生的利润与投入资本进行比较。
ROI (%) = (Profit from investment / Capital invested) × 100
ROI (%) = (投资利润 / 投入资本) × 100
A higher ROI indicates a more effective use of resources. It is commonly used to evaluate new projects or compare competing investment options.
ROI 越高，表示资源利用效率越高。常用于评估新项目或比较竞争性投资方案。
9. Labour Productivity and Efficiency | 劳动生产率与效率
Measures of workforce efficiency help assess how well human resources are utilised.
劳动力效率指标有助于评估人力资源的利用程度。
Labour productivity = Output per period / Number of employees
劳动生产率 = 期间产出 / 员工人数
Unit cost = Total cost / Output
单位成本 = 总成本 / 产量
Absenteeism (%) = (Number of staff absence days / Total working days) × 100
缺勤率 (%) = (员工缺勤天数 / 总工作日数) × 100
Improving labour productivity can lower unit costs, while high absenteeism may indicate employee dissatisfaction.
提高劳动生产率可以降低单位成本，而高缺勤率可能意味着员工不满。
10. Liquidity Ratios | 流动性比率
Liquidity ratios assess a firm’s ability to meet short-term debts. The main ones are Current Ratio and Acid Test Ratio.
流动性比率衡量企业偿还短期债务的能力，主要有流动比率和速动比率。
Current Ratio = Current Assets / Current Liabilities
流动比率 = 流动资产 / 流动负债
Acid Test Ratio = (Current Assets − Inventory) / Current Liabilities
速动比率 = (流动资产 − 存货) / 流动负债
A current ratio of 1.5-2 is often seen as healthy. The acid test ratio excludes stock because it may be harder to sell quickly. Both should be monitored to avoid cash-flow problems.
流动比率在 1.5-2 之间通常被视为健康。速动比率剔除了存货，因为存货可能较难快速变现。两者均应监控以避免现金流问题。
11. Efficiency Ratios: Inventory and Receivables/Payables | 效率比率：存货、应收与应付款项
These ratios show how well a business manages stock and trade credit.
这些比率反映企业管理存货和商业信用的效率。
Inventory Turnover (times) = Cost of Sales / Average Inventory
存货周转率(次) = 销售成本 / 平均存货
Trade Receivables Days = (Trade Receivables / Credit Sales) × 365
应收账款周转天数 = (应收账款 / 赊销收入) × 365
Trade Payables Days = (Trade Payables / Credit Purchases) × 365
应付账款周转天数 = (应付账款 / 赊购成本) × 365
Higher inventory turnover may indicate efficient stock management, but too high a turnover risks stock-outs. Longer payables days improve cash flow but can damage supplier relationships.
存货周转率高可能说明库存管理高效，但过高可能导致断货风险。应付账款天数较长虽能改善现金流，但可能损害与供应商的关系。
12. Capacity Utilisation and Variance Analysis | 产能利用率与预算差异分析
Capacity utilisation shows the extent to which productive capacity is used, while variance analysis compares budgeted and actual figures.
产能利用率显示生产能力的利用程度，而差异分析则比较预算与实际数据。
Capacity Utilisation = (Actual Output / Maximum Possible Output) × 100
产能利用率 = (实际产量 / 最大可能产量) × 100
igure. A positive variance (favourable) could be higher revenue or lower cost than budgeted; a negative variance (adverse) is the opposite.
差异 = 预算数字 − 实际数字。正差异（有利）可能是收入高于预算或成本低于预算；负差异（不利）则相反。
Both tools support operational decision-making: under-utilisation raises unit fixed costs, while variances prompt managers to investigate and take corrective action.
两种工具均支持经营决策：产能利用率不足会推高单位固定成本，而差异则促使管理者调查并采取纠正措施。
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