📚 SQA Psychology Year 12: A Complete Guide to Memorising Key Terms | SQA 心理学 Year 12：关键术语速记完全指南
SQA Higher Psychology demands not only an understanding of key theories but also the precise use of terminology. Whether you are tackling the research method section or the individual and social behaviour topics, a solid grasp of terms like 'operationalisation', 'internal validity' and 'cognitive schema' can lift a mid-band answer into the top band. This guide organises the essential vocabulary of the course by theme, pairs every term with a memory hack, and shows you how to build a revision routine that actually holds.
SQA Higher 心理学不仅要求你理解关键理论，还要求你精准使用术语。无论你面对的是研究方法部分，还是个体行为与社会行为专题，扎实掌握"操作化""内部效度""认知图式"这类术语，都能把一份中档答案提升到高分段。本指南按主题整理课程必备术语，为每个术语配上记忆窍门，并告诉你如何搭建一套真正记得住的复习节奏。
1. Vocabulary Mastery Strategies | 词汇精通策略
Terminology is worth marks in its own right. SQA mark schemes reward candidates who use the correct psychological term and then explain it, rather than writing a long paraphrase that never names the concept. Learn terms in the context of a study or an example, not as an isolated definition list.
术语本身就是得分点。SQA 评分方案奖励那些先写出正确心理学术语、再加以解释的考生，而不是写一大段始终不点出概念的"意译"。请在具体研究或例子的情境中记术语，而不是背一张孤立的定义清单。
Chunking: group related terms into categories to reduce cognitive load. For example, all variables (IV, DV, EV, CV) can be revised together, all ethical issues together, and all sampling methods together. Four chunks of five terms is far easier to hold than twenty loose items.
组块化：把相关术语分组，降低认知负荷。例如所有变量（自变量 IV、因变量 DV、额外变量 EV、混淆变量 CV）一起复习，所有伦理问题一起复习，所有抽样方法一起复习。四个"五词组块"远比二十个零散条目容易记住。
Mnemonics and acronyms: build a memorable phrase in which each letter stands for a term. For research design, use 'O-V-E' (Operationalise, Variable control, Ethics). For the four variable types, use 'I-D-E-C' (Independent, Dependent, Extraneous, Confounding). For ethics, use 'C-D-P-R-A' (Consent, Deception, Protection from harm, Right to withdraw, Anonymity).
助记符与首字母缩略词：造一个容易记住的短语，每个字母代表一个术语。研究设计用"OVE"（操作化 Operationalise、变量控制 Variable control、伦理 Ethics）；四类变量用"IDEC"（自变量、因变量、额外变量、混淆变量）；伦理用"CDPRA"（知情同意、欺瞒、免于伤害、退出权、匿名）。
Visual imagery: link each term to a vivid mental picture. For 'extraneous variable', imagine an 'extra' noisy fan rattling away in the experiment room. For 'confounding variable', picture a second, 'confused' fan that switches on only when the independent variable changes, so you can never tell which one caused the result.
视觉心像：把术语与生动的心理图像绑在一起。"额外变量"就想象实验室里多出来的一台"额外的"嘈杂风扇；"混淆变量"则想象第二台"搞混了"的风扇，它只在自变量改变时才启动，于是你永远说不清是谁导致了结果。
Active recall and self-testing: after reading a definition, cover it and try to reproduce it from memory. Research on the testing effect (Roediger and Karpicke) shows that retrieval strengthens memory far more than re-reading. Add spaced practice (revisit after one day, three days, one week) and interleaving (mix topics in one session instead of blocking them).
主动回忆与自我测试：读完定义后遮住它，凭记忆复述。关于"测试效应"的研究（Roediger 与 Karpicke）表明，提取信息对记忆的强化远胜于反复重读。再加上间隔练习（一天后、三天后、一周后各复习一次）与交错练习（一次复习中混合多个主题，而不是只攻一个主题）。
2. Research Methods: Core Terminology | 研究方法：核心术语
The research section is the most term-dense part of the course, and it appears in every paper. Start with the spine of any study: aim, hypothesis, method, results, discussion, conclusion. The aim states what you intend to investigate; the hypothesis is a testable, operationalised prediction about the expected relationship between two variables.
研究方法是全课程术语密度最高、也是每张卷子都会考的部分。先抓住任何研究的"脊椎"：目的、假设、方法、结果、讨论、结论。目的说明你打算研究什么；假设则是关于两个变量之间预期关系的、可检验且已操作化的预测。
Operationalisation: defining a variable so precisely that it can be measured in a specific situation. 'Memory' is vague; 'the number of words correctly recalled from a 20-word list after a two-minute delay' is operationalised. A directional (one-tailed) hypothesis predicts the direction of the difference; a non-directional (two-tailed) hypothesis predicts only that a difference or relationship exists.
操作化：把变量界定得足够精确，使其能在具体情境中被测量。"记忆力"很含糊；"延迟两分钟后正确回忆 20 词表中的单词数"就是操作化。定向（单尾）假设预测差异的方向；非定向（双尾）假设只预测存在差异或相关。
Standardised procedure and standardised instructions: every participant experiences the same task, wording, timing and environment, so that differences in results can be attributed to the IV rather than to inconsistent treatment. A pilot study is a small-scale trial run that checks whether instructions, timings and materials actually work before the main study.
标准化程序与标准化指导语：每位参与者经历相同的任务、措辞、时间安排和环境，这样结果的差异才能归因于自变量，而不是被不一致的对待方式造成。先导研究（pilot study）是在正式研究前做的小规模试测，用来检验指导语、时间安排和材料是否真的可行。
Demand characteristics are cues in the study that let participants guess the aim and change their behaviour; social desirability bias is the tendency to answer in a way that looks good rather than in a way that is true. Investigator effects cover the researcher's own influence, for example through tone of voice, expectation or unintentional signals.
需求特征指研究中的线索让参与者猜出研究目的并改变行为；社会赞许性偏差指人们倾向于给出"看起来正确"而非"真实"的回答。研究者效应则涵盖研究者本人的影响，例如语气、期望或无意的暗示。
Finally, know your method labels: laboratory, field, natural and quasi experiments; observation (naturalistic, controlled, participant, non-participant); questionnaires; interviews (structured, semi-structured, unstructured); case studies; and correlations. Each has its own strengths, weaknesses and ethical implications, and naming the method accurately is often the first mark in a question.
最后要记牢方法名称：实验室实验、现场实验、自然实验、准实验；观察法（自然观察、控制观察、参与式、非参与式）；问卷法；访谈法（结构式、半结构式、非结构式）；个案研究；相关研究。每种方法都有各自的优缺点与伦理含义，而"准确写出方法名称"往往是题目里的第一分。
3. Variables and Operationalisation | 变量与操作化
If you learn only one cluster of terms thoroughly, learn this one. Variables are examined in almost every research question, and confusion between extraneous and confounding variables is one of the most common causes of lost marks at Higher.
如果只能彻底掌握一个术语群，那就是这一组。变量几乎出现在每一道研究方法题中，而把"额外变量"和"混淆变量"搞混，是 Higher 阶段最常见的失分原因之一。
| Term | 中文 | Example | Memory hook |
| Independent variable (IV) | 自变量 | Whether the word list is read aloud or silently | The variable I change |
| Dependent variable (DV) | 因变量 | Number of words correctly recalled | The variable that depends on the IV |
| Extraneous variable (EV) | 额外变量 | Room temperature, noise, time of day | An extra unwanted factor |
| Confounding variable (CV) | 混淆变量 | All boys assigned to one condition and all girls to the other | Confused with the IV |
| Participant variables | 参与者变量 | Age, mood, prior knowledge, IQ | Differences inside people |
| Situational variables | 情境变量 | Temperature, lighting, instructions | Differences around people |
The key distinction: an extraneous variable adds 'noise' and makes your results less clear, but a confounding variable varies systematically with the IV, so it offers a rival explanation for the result and destroys internal validity. Random allocation, counterbalancing, standardised instructions and matched pairs are the standard controls.
关键区别在于：额外变量只是增加"噪音"，让结果更模糊；而混淆变量与自变量系统性地共同变化，为结果提供了另一种解释，从而破坏内部效度。随机分配、抵消平衡、标准化指导语和配对设计是标准的控制手段。
4. Experimental Design, Validity and Reliability | 实验设计、效度与信度
Independent measures design uses different participants in each condition. It avoids order effects but risks individual differences between groups; random allocation helps to balance these. Repeated measures design uses the same participants in every condition, which controls participant variables but creates order effects.
独立组设计在不同条件下使用不同参与者。它避免了顺序效应，但存在组间个体差异的风险，随机分配有助于平衡这些差异。重复测量设计让同一批参与者经历所有条件，控制了参与者变量，却产生了顺序效应。
Order effects include practice effects (improvement from doing the task twice) and fatigue effects (deterioration). Counterbalancing is the cure: half the participants do condition A then B, the other half do B then A. Matched pairs design pairs participants on a relevant characteristic and then splits each pair across conditions, combining some control with no order effects, at the cost of being time-consuming.
顺序效应包括练习效应（第二次做同一任务而提高）与疲劳效应（表现下降）。抵消平衡是解药：一半参与者先做 A 后做 B，另一半先做 B 后做 A。配对设计先把参与者按相关
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