📚 Year 12 CCEA Sociology: Key Vocabulary and Concepts Quick Revision Guide | Year 12 CCEA 社会学：核心词汇速记指南
Understanding and using precise sociological terminology is vital for high marks in Year 12 CCEA Sociology. This guide breaks down key concepts across culture, identity, social control, inequality and research methods, providing clear definitions and memory hooks to help you master the terms required for AS Units 1 and 2.
理解并准确运用社会学专业术语对于在 Year 12 CCEA 社会学考试中获得高分至关重要。本指南拆解了文化、身份认同、社会控制、不平等和研究方法等关键概念，提供清晰的定义和记忆窍门，帮助你掌握 AS 单元 1 和 2 所需的术语。
1. Why Sociological Vocabulary Matters | 为什么社会学词汇很重要
In CCEA Sociology, marks are not awarded simply for recognising a term. You must define it accurately, apply it to the context, compare it with other concepts and evaluate its strengths and limitations. Vocabulary is therefore a mark-scheme tool, not a list to memorise passively.
在 CCEA 社会学中，分数并不只是因为你认出了一个术语就给。你必须准确定义它，把它应用到具体情境中，与其他概念进行比较，并评价其优势与局限。因此，词汇是得分工具，而不是被动背诵的清单。
Terms such as culture, norms, values, socialisation, identity, social control, inequality and research methods appear across both AS Units 1 and 2. When you use them correctly, your answers sound sociological rather than everyday. When you use them vaguely, your analysis becomes weak.
文化、规范、价值观、社会化、身份认同、社会控制、不平等和研究方法等术语会贯穿 AS 单元 1 和 2。正确使用它们，你的答案会显得具有社会学味道，而不是日常闲聊。含糊使用它们，你的分析就会变得薄弱。
A useful revision method is to create three columns for every term: definition, example and evaluation. This forces you to move from simple knowledge to application and analysis, which is exactly what higher-mark questions reward.
一个有用的复习方法是，为每个术语制作三栏：定义、例子和评价。这会迫使你从简单知识走向应用和分析，而这正是高分题所奖励的能力。
2. Culture, Norms and Values | 文化、规范与价值观
Culture refers to the whole way of life of a particular society, including its language, beliefs, customs, knowledge, rituals and material objects. It is learned, shared and transmitted from one generation to the next. Culture is not biological; it is social.
文化指的是一个特定社会的整个生活方式，包括它的语言、信仰、习俗、知识、仪式和物质对象。文化是被学习的、共享的，并代代传递。文化不是生物性的，而是社会性的。
Norms informal, such as queuing, or more formal, such as wearing a school uniform. Memory hook: 'Norms = Normal in context'.
规范是未成文的行为准则，指导人们在特定情境中应当如何行动。它们可以是非正式的，如排队，也可以更正式，如穿校服。记忆技巧：'规范 = 在情境中视为正常'。
Values are broad, abstract standards that define what is desirable, good and important in a society, for example freedom, honesty, equality or respect for human life. Memory hook: 'Values are what you value'.
价值观是广泛的、抽象的标准，用来界定一个社会中什么是可取的、善良的和重要的，例如自由、诚实、平等或尊重生命。记忆技巧：'价值观就是你珍视的东西'。
Cultural universals are features found in all human societies, such as language, family systems and rules about food or marriage. However, their specific form varies between cultures, which shows the importance of cultural context.
文化共通项是所有人类社会都存在的特征，例如语言、家庭制度以及关于食物或婚姻的规则。不过，它们具体的形式因文化而异，这说明文化情境非常重要。
3. Subculture, Counterculture and Cultural Diversity | 亚文化、反文化与文化多样性
Subculture is a group within a larger culture that has its own distinctive norms and values while still sharing many elements of the wider culture. Examples include goth subcultures, religious youth groups or occupational groups. Memory hook: 'Sub means under or within'.
亚文化是一个更大文化中的群体，它拥有自身独特的规范和价值观，同时仍共享更广泛文化的许多元素。例子包括哥特亚文化、宗教青年群体或职业群体。记忆技巧：'亚意味着从属或内部'。
Counterculture is a type of subculture that rejects or challenges the dominant norms and values of mainstream society. It may actively oppose institutions such as government, religion or the family. In exams, do not confuse counterculture with subculture: all countercultures are subcultures, but not all subcultures are countercultural.
反文化是一种亚文化，它拒绝或挑战主流社会的主导规范和价值观。它可能积极反对政府、宗教或家庭等制度。考试中不要把反文化和亚文化混淆：所有反文化都是亚文化，但并非所有亚文化都具有反文化性质。
Cultural diversity an be linked to migration, ethnicity, religion, age, region and social class. Memory hook: 'Diversity = variety'.
文化多样性是一个社会中存在的不同文化和亚文化的范围。它可以与移民、族群、宗教、年龄、地区和社会阶级相联系。记忆技巧：'多样性 = 多种多样'。
Cultural relativism means judging a culture by its own standards rather than by the standards of another culture. Its opposite is ethnocentrism, which means judging other cultures by the standards of one's own culture and often seeing them as inferior.
文化相对主义是指用某一文化自身的标准来评判它，而不是用另一文化的标准来评判。它的对立面是族群中心主义，即用自己的文化标准评判其他文化，并常常视其为低劣。
4. Socialisation: Primary and Secondary | 社会化：初级与次级
Socialisation is the lifelong process through which individuals learn the culture of a society, including its norms, values, language, beliefs and social roles. It is how society transmits culture and how individuals become social beings.
社会化是个体终生学习社会文化的过程，包括规范、价值观、语言、信仰和社会角色。它既是社会传递文化的方式，也是个体成为社会存在的方式。
Primary socialisation es and language. Key agents include parents, siblings and other close carers. Memory hook: 'Primary = first'.
初级社会化发生在幼儿期，通常是在家庭中。儿童学习基本规范、价值观和语言。关键主体包括父母、兄弟姐妹和其他亲密照料者。记忆技巧：'初级 = 第一'。
Secondary socialisation occurs later in life, outside the family. It involves agencies such as schools, peer groups, the media, religion and the workplace. It teaches more specific norms and values, such as punctuality, teamwork and professional conduct.
次级社会化发生在后来的人生阶段，通常在家庭之外。它涉及学校、同辈群体、媒体、宗教和工作场所等机构。它教授更具体的规范和价值观，如守时、团队合作和职业行为。
Resocialisation is when an individual learns new norms and values that replace or strongly modify earlier ones. Examples include joining the army, entering prison or moving to a very different society. Anticipatory socialisation means learning the norms of a group you hope to join, such as preparing for university or a profession.
再社会化是指个体学习新的规范和价值观，并取代或强烈修改此前的规范与价值观。例子包括参军、入狱或移居到一个非常不同的社会。预期社会化是指学习你希望加入的群体的规范，例如为大学或职业做准备。
5. Agents of Socialisation and Social Identity | 社会化主体与社会身份
Agents of socialisation are the people, groups and institutions that transmit norms and values. The main agents are the family, education, peer groups, the media, religion and the workplace. Each agent may reinforce or conflict with the others.
社会化主体是传递规范和价值观的人、群体和制度。主要主体包括家庭、教育、同辈群体、媒体、宗教和工作场所。每个主体可能相互强化，也可能相互冲突。
The family is usually the first and most intimate agent. It teaches language, basic morality, gender roles and class-related attitudes. Sociologists often link family socialisation to primary socialisation.
家庭通常是第一个也是最亲密的动因。它教授语言、基本道德、性别角色和与阶级相关的态度。社会学家常把家庭社会化与初级社会化联系起来。
Education teaches formal knowledge but also informal norms through the hidden curriculum, such as punctuality, obedience, competition and respect for authority. It can promote shared values, but Marxists argue it reproduces class inequality.
教育不仅教授正式知识，也通过隐性课程教授非正式规范，如守时、服从、竞争和尊重权威。它可以促进共同价值观，但马克思主义者认为它再生产了阶级不平等。
Peer groups are especially important in adolescence. They can create pressure to conform to dress codes, speech styles and behavioural norms. Media transmits images and expectations about gender, class, ethnicity and success, shaping what people see as normal or desirable.
同辈群体在青春期尤为重要。它们可能制造压力，让人遵从穿着、语言风格和行为规范。媒体传递关于性别、阶级、族群和成功的形象与期待，塑造人们视为正常或可欲的东西。
6. Identity: Class, Gender, Ethnicity and Age | 身份：阶级、性别、族群与年龄
Identity is how people see themselves and how others see them. Social identity is based on group memberships such as class, gender, ethnicity, age, religion and nationality. Sociologists argue that identity is socially constructed, not simply natural or individual.
身份认同是人们如何看待自己以及他人如何看待自己。社会身份建立在群体成员身份之上，如阶级、性别、族群、年龄、宗教和国籍。社会学家认为，身份是社会建构的，而不只是自然的或个人的。
Class identity refers to a sense of belonging to a social class, such as working class, middle class or upper class. It can be shaped by occupation, income, education, housing and lifestyle. Class identity may be strong, weak or changing.
阶级身份是指对某一社会阶级的归属感，如工人阶级、中产阶级或上层阶级。它可能由职业、收入、教育、住房和生活方式塑造。阶级身份可能强烈、微弱或不断变化。
Gender identity is learned through gender socialisation. Families, schools, peers and media often teach different expectations for boys and girls. Feminists distinguish between sex as biological and gender as socially constructed.
性别身份通过性别社会化习得。家庭、学校、同辈和媒体常常对男孩和女孩教授不同期待。女性主义者区分作为生物特征的生理性别和作为社会建构的社会性别。
Ethnic identity is based on shared culture, ancestry, language, religion or history. It can be strengthened or challenged by migration, racism, media representation and government policies. Age identity is also socially constructed; childhood, youth, adulthood and old age carry different expectations and statuses.
族群身份建立在共享文化、祖先、语言、宗教或历史之上。它可能因移民、种族主义、媒体再现和政府政策而被强化或挑战。年龄身份同样是社会建构的；童年、青年、成年和老年带有不同期待与地位。
7. Social Control: Formal and Informal | 社会控制：正式与非正式
Social control refers to the ways society tries to ensure that people conform to norms and values. It maintains social order and discourages deviance. It can be formal or informal, and it can use positive or negative sanctions.
社会控制是指社会试图确保人们遵从规范和价值观的方式。它维持社会秩序并阻止越轨。它可以是正式的或非正式的，也可以使用积极或消极制裁。
Formal social control is carried out by official agencies such as the police, courts, prisons and schools. It is based on written rules and laws, and sanctions are clearly defined, such as fines, imprisonment or exclusion.
正式社会控制由警察、法院、监狱和学校等官方机构执行。它建立在成文规则和法律之上，制裁有明确规定，如罚款、监禁或开除。
Informal social control is carried out by family, friends, neighbours, peers and the media. It relies on approval, disapproval, gossip, shame, praise or exclusion. It is often more powerful in daily life because people care about belonging.
非正式社会控制由家庭、朋友、邻居、同辈和媒体执行。它依赖赞同、反对、闲言碎语、羞耻、表扬或排斥。它在日常生活中往往更强大，因为人们在意归属感。
Sanctions are rewards or punishments used to encourage conformity. Positive sanctions include praise, certificates and promotions. Negative sanctions include criticism, fines and imprisonment. Conformity means following norms; deviance means breaking them.
制裁是用来鼓励遵从的奖励或惩罚。积极制裁包括表扬、证书和晋升。消极制裁包括批评、罚款和监禁。遵从意味着遵守规范；越轨意味着违反规范。
8. Social Inequality and Stratification | 社会不平等与社会分层
Social inequality refers to unequal access to resources, rewards and opportunities, such as income, wealth, education, health and power. It is structured, not random, and it affects different social groups in different ways.
社会不平等是指对资源、回报和机会的不平等获取，如收入、财富、教育、健康和权力。它是结构性的，不是随机的，并以不同方式影响不同社会群体。
Social stratification is the division of society into hierarchical layers or strata. Major systems include slavery, caste, estate and class. In modern UK society, social class is a key form of stratification.
社会分层是把社会划分为等级层次或层级的做法。主要制度包括奴隶制、种姓制、等级制和阶级制。在现代英国社会，社会阶级是分层的关键形式。
Life chances are the opportunities people have to achieve desirable outcomes, such as good health, education and employment. Class position strongly influences life chances. Poverty can be absolute, meaning lacking basic necessities, or relative, meaning falling below the living standards of the wider society.
生活机会是人们获得理想结果的机会，如良好健康、教育和就业。阶级位置强烈影响生活机会。贫困可以是绝对贫困，即缺乏基本生活必需品；也可以是相对贫困，即低于更广泛社会的生活标准。
Social mobility is movement between social classes. It can be upward or downward, and intergenerational or intragenerational. Functionalism sees stratification as necessary, Marxism sees it as exploitative, and Weberian theory focuses on class, status and party.
社会流动是在社会阶级之间的移动。它可以是向上或向下，也可以是代际或代内。功能主义认为分层是必要的，马克思主义认为它是剥削性的，而韦伯主义理论关注阶级、地位和政党。
9. Research Methods: Key Terms | 研究方法：核心术语
Primary data is collected first-hand by the researcher, for example through surveys, interviews or observations. Secondary data already exists, such as official statistics, diaries, letters or previous studies.
一手资料是研究者亲自收集的数据，例如通过问卷调查、访谈或观察。二手资料是已经存在的数据，如官方统计、日记、信件或先前研究。
Quantitative data is numerical and often used to identify patterns and trends. Qualitative data is rich in meaning and often used to understand experiences and motives. Many sociologists use mixed methods to combine both.
定量数据是数字化的，常用于识别模式和趋势。定性数据富于意义，常用于理解经历和动机。许多社会学家使用混合方法
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