📚 Core Knowledge Review for Cambridge IGCSE Philosophy | 剑桥 IGCSE 哲学核心知识点梳理
This article provides a structured overview of the essential topics for Year 11 Cambridge IGCSE Philosophy. It covers the nature of philosophy, key areas of epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, political philosophy, and philosophy of religion. Each section presents key arguments, philosophers, and concepts in clear English-Chinese pairs, following the Cambridge syllabus requirements for argument analysis and evaluation.
本文为剑桥 IGCSE 哲学 Year 11 学生梳理核心知识点。内容涵盖哲学的本质、认识论、形而上学、伦理学、政治哲学和宗教哲学等主要领域。每个知识点都以中英双语对照呈现，紧扣剑桥大纲对论证分析与评价的要求，帮助学习者系统掌握必备概念、哲学家及其关键论证。
1. What Is Philosophy? | 什么是哲学？
Philosophy is the rational inquiry into fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, values, reason, and language. Unlike science, which relies on empirical observation, philosophy uses conceptual analysis, logical reasoning, and thought experiments. It encourages us to examine the assumptions behind our beliefs.
哲学是对存在、知识、价值、理性和语言等根本问题的理性探索。与依赖经验观察的科学不同，哲学运用概念分析、逻辑推理和思想实验，鼓励我们审视自身信念背后的前提。
Key methods include the Socratic method (questioning to expose inconsistencies) and the construction and critique of arguments. Philosophers aim for clarity and coherence rather than laboratory verification.
主要方法包括苏格拉底式提问（通过追问揭示矛盾）以及论证的构建与批判。哲学家追求的是清晰与融贯，而非实验室检验。
2. What Is Knowledge? The Tripartite View and the Gettier Problem | 什么是知识？三重定义与盖梯尔问题
Knowledge is traditionally defined as justified true belief (JTB): a person S knows that P if and only if (i) P is true, (ii) S believes that P, and (iii) S is justified in believing that P. This definition has been dominant since Plato.
知识通常被定义为得到辩护的真信念（JTB）：某人 S 知道 P，当且仅当（i）P 为真，（ii）S 相信 P，并且（iii）S 对相信 P 有辩护理由。这一定义自柏拉图的《泰阿泰德篇》起便占据主导地位。
However, Edmund Gettier's 1963 paper presented counterexamples where a person has a justified true belief but still does not seem to have knowledge. For instance, Smith believes 'the man who will get the job has ten coins in his pocket' based on strong evidence; the belief is true, but only by coincidence, because Smith himself gets the job and happens to have ten coins, though he was thinking of someone else. This shows JTB is not sufficient for knowledge.
然而，盖梯尔在1963年提出的反例表明，某人可以拥有得到辩护的真信念，却仍然不构成知识。例如，史密斯基于强证据相信“那个会获得工作的人口袋里有十枚硬币”；该信念为真，但纯属巧合——最后是史密斯自己获得了工作且恰好有十枚硬币，而他原本想的是别人。这显示出JTB并非知识的充分条件。
3. Rationalism vs. Empiricism: Foundations of Knowledge | 理性主义与经验主义：知识的基础
Rationalists, such as Descartes, argue that reason is the primary source of knowledge, and certain truths are innate or knowable a priori. Descartes' method of doubt led him to 'Cogito, ergo sum' (I think, therefore I am) as an indubitable foundation.
理性主义者，如笛卡尔，主张理性是知识的主要来源，某些真理是天生的或可先验认识。笛卡尔通过普遍怀疑的方法得出“我思故我在”(Cogito, ergo sum)作为不可怀疑的根基。
Empiricists, such as Locke, claim that all knowledge comes from sensory experience. The mind at birth is a tabula rasa (blank slate), and all ideas are derived from experience, either through sensation or reflection. Hume further argued that all meaningful ideas must be traceable to impressions.
经验主义者，如洛克，认为一切知识都来自感官经验。心灵在出生时是一块“白板”(tabula rasa)，所有观念都来自感觉或反省。休谟更进一步论证，一切有意义的观念都必须能追溯到印象。
A comparison can be summarised in a table:
可以通过一个表格对比理性主义与经验主义：
| Aspect 方面 | Rationalism 理性主义 | Empiricism 经验主义 |
|---|---|---|
| Source of knowledge 知识来源 | Reason, innate ideas 理性、天赋观念 | Sensory experience 感官经验 |
| Key thinkers 代表人物 | Descartes, Leibniz 笛卡尔、莱布尼茨 | Locke, Hume 洛克、休谟 |
| Certainty 确定性 | A priori truths 先验真理 | Fallibility of senses 感官的可错性 |
4. Scepticism: Can We Know the External World? | 怀疑论：我们能认识外部世界吗？
Scepticism questions whether knowledge is possible. Global scepticism denies all knowledge, while local scepticism targets specific areas. Descartes introduced the evil demon argument: a powerful demon could deceive us about everything, including the existence of the physical world. This radical doubt challenges the reliability of our senses.
怀疑论质疑知识是否可能。全面怀疑论否定一切知识，而局部怀疑论则针对特定领域。笛卡尔提出了恶魔论证：一个强大的恶魔可能在所有事情上欺骗我们，包括物理世界的存在。这种彻底怀疑挑战了感官的可靠性。
More recently, the brain-in-a-vat thought experiment updated this scenario: if our brains were kept in a vat and fed sensory inputs by a computer, we would have the same experiences but no contact with reality. Sceptics argue we cannot rule out such possibilities, so knowledge of the external world is impossible.
当代的“缸中之脑”思想实验更新了这一情境：如果我们的脑被放在缸中，由计算机输入感官信号，我们会有相同的经验，却无法接触到真实世界。怀疑论者认为我们无法排除这类可能性，因此对外部世界的知识是不可能的。
5. The Mind–Body Problem: Dualism vs. Physicalism | 身心问题：二元论与物理主义
The mind–body problem concerns the relationship between mental states (thoughts, feelings) and physical states (brain processes). Substance dualism, defended by Descartes, holds that the mind is a non-physical substance distinct from the body. The mind and body interact through the pineal gland, though how remains mysterious.
身心问题探讨心理状态（思想、感受）与物理状态（脑过程）的关系。笛卡尔所捍卫的实体二元论认为，心灵是一种与身体不同的非物理实体。心灵与身体通过松果腺交互作用，但交互机制依然是一个谜。
Property dualism accepts one substance (the brain) but claims mental properties are irreducible to physical properties. Physicalism, on the other hand, asserts that everything, including the mind, is physical. Identity theory claims mental states are identical to brain states; functionalism defines mental states by their causal roles.
属性二元论接受只有一种实体（大脑），但认为心理属性不可还原为物理属性。物理主义则主张一切包括心灵都是物理的。同一论主张心理状态等同于脑状态；功能主义则通过因果角色定义心理状态。
The 'hard problem' of consciousness, as posed by David Chalmers, refers to the difficulty of explaining subjective experience (qualia) in physical terms. This remains a central challenge for physicalists.
查尔默斯提出的意识“困难问题”是指，难以用物理术语解释主观经验（感受质）。这仍然是物理主义面临的核心挑战。
6. Personal Identity: What Makes Me the Same Person Over Time? | 人格同一性：什么使我随时间推移还是同一个人？
Personal identity asks what it is that makes a person at one time the same as a person at another time. The physical criterion focuses on bodily continuity, especially the brain. But thought experiments like brain transplants challenge this: if your brain is put into another body, most people think you go with the brain.
人格同一性探讨究竟是什么使得一个人在不同时间仍是同一个人。物理标准注重身体的连续性，特别是大脑的连续性。但像大脑移植这样的思想实验带来了挑战：如果你的大脑被移植到另一个身体里，多数人会认为你随大脑而去。
The psychological continuity theory, championed by John Locke and later by Derek Parfit, holds that personal identity consists in overlapping chains of psychological connections, such as memories, intentions, and character traits. Locke's memory theory says that I am the same person as a past self if I can remember that self's thoughts and actions.
心理连续性理论由洛克首倡、帕菲特后续发展，主张人格同一性由心理联系的叠加链条构成，如记忆、意图和性格特征等。洛克的记忆理论认为，如果我能记得过去某个自我的思想和行为，那么我与那个自我就是同一个人。
Parfit's fission case (one person's brain hemispheres are transplanted into two bodies) creates a problem: both resulting persons are psychologically continuous with the original. Parfit argues this shows identity is not what matters; what matters is survival through psychological connectedness.
帕菲特的裂变案例（将一个人的大脑两个半球分别移植到两个身体中）制造了一个难题：两个结果中的人都与原初者有心理连续性。帕菲特认为这表明同一性并非重要之事，重要的是通过心理联系得以“幸存”。
7. Free Will and Determinism: Are We Responsible for Our Actions? | 自由意志与决定论：我们要为自身行为负责吗？
Determinism is the view that every event, including human actions, is causally necessitated by prior events and the laws of nature. If determinism is true, it seems we cannot do otherwise than we actually do, which threatens free will and moral responsibility.
决定论认为，每个事件，包括人类行为，都由先前的事件和自然规律因果必然地决定。如果决定论为真，我们似乎无法做出不同于实际所做的行为，这对自由意志和道德责任构成了威胁。
Hard determinists accept determinism and deny free will, concluding that we are not morally responsible. Compatibilists (soft determinists) argue that free will is compatible with determinism: free actions are those caused by our own desires and intentions, without external coercion, even if those desires are themselves determined.
强硬决定论者接受决定论并否认自由意志，由此得出我们不负道德责任的结论。相容论者（温和决定论者）认为自由意志与决定论相容：自由行为是由我们自己的欲望和意图引起、未经外在强制的行为，即使这些欲望本身也是被决定的。
Libertarians (in metaphysics) reject determinism, arguing that we have genuine free will because some events, particularly human choices, are not determined. They often appeal to agent causation or quantum indeterminacy, though the latter struggles to explain responsible agency.
形而上学中的自由意志论者拒斥决定论，认为我们拥有真正的自由意志，因为某些事件，尤其是人类选择，并非被决定。他们常诉诸行动者因果或量子不确定性，但后者难以解释负责任的行动者。
8. Utilitarianism: The Greatest Happiness Principle | 功利主义：最大幸福原则
Utilitarianism is a consequentialist ethical theory that judges actions by their outcomes. The classic formulation comes from Jeremy Bentham: an action is right if it promotes the greatest happiness for the greatest number. Happiness is equated with pleasure and the absence of pain (hedonism).
功利主义是一种后果论伦理理论，依据行为结果来评判行为。经典表述来自边沁：一个行为如果能够促进最大多数人的最大幸福，就是正确的。幸福被等同于快乐与无痛苦（享乐主义）。
Bentham proposed a 'felicific calculus' that considers seven dimensions of pleasure: intensity, duration, certainty, propinquity, fecundity, purity, and extent. John Stuart Mill later distinguished higher pleasures (intellectual) from lower pleasures (bodily), arguing that qualitative differences matter: 'It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied.'
边沁提出了“幸福计算法”，考虑快乐的七个维度：强度、持续时间、确定性、邻近性、增殖性、纯度和范围。密尔后来区分了高等快乐（理智的）和低等快乐（身体的），主张质的不同至关重要：“宁做不满足的人，不做满足的猪。”
Weaknesses of utilitarianism include the difficulty of measuring pleasure, the demand of impartiality that may conflict with personal relationships, and the possibility of justifying injustice if it produces greater overall happiness.
功利主义的弱点包括：快乐难以量化，其公正性要求可能与个人亲密关系相冲突，以及可能为产生更大总体幸福而将不正义合理化。
9. Kantian Deontology: Duty and the Categorical Imperative | 康德义务论：责任与定言命令
Immanuel Kant's deontological ethics focuses on duty and the moral law, not consequences. An action has moral worth only if it is done from duty, in accordance with a good will. The core principle is the categorical imperative, which commands unconditionally.
康德的义务论伦理学关注责任和道德律，而非后果。一个行为只有出于责任、符合善良意志时才具有道德价值。其核心原则是定言命令，它无条件地发出命令。
The first formulation of the categorical imperative is the Formula of Universal Law: 'Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.' If a maxim cannot be universalised without contradiction, the action is impermissible.
定言命令的第一个公式是普遍法则公式：“只依据那些你同时愿意它成为普遍法则的准则而行动。”如果一个准则不能毫无矛盾地普遍化，则该行为不被允许。
The second formulation is the Formula of Humanity: 'Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of another, always at the same time as an end, never merely as a means.' This prohibits using people as mere instruments.
第二个公式是人性公式：“你要这样行动，永远都把人——不论是你自己还是任何其他人——当作目的，而绝不仅仅当作手段。”这禁止将人仅仅当作工具来使用。
10. Virtue Ethics: Character and Flourishing | 美德伦理学：品格与繁荣
Virtue ethics, rooted in Aristotle's philosophy, shifts the focus from rules or consequences to the character of the moral agent. The right action is what a virtuous person would do in the circumstances. The ultimate aim is eudaimonia (flourishing or living well).
美德伦理学根源于亚里士多德哲学，将焦点从规则或后果转移到道德行动者的品格上。正确的行为就是有德之人在同样情境下会做出的行为。其终极目标是 eudaimonia（人的繁荣或活得好）。
A virtue is a stable disposition to act, think, and feel in appropriate ways. Aristotle proposed the Doctrine of the Mean: each moral virtue lies between two vices, one of excess and one of deficiency. For example, courage lies between rashness (excess) and cowardice (deficiency).
美德是一种以恰当方式行动、思考和感受的稳定倾向。亚里士多德提出了中道学说：每种道德美德都处于两个恶习之间，一为过度，一为不及。例如，勇敢位于鲁莽（过度）与怯懦（不及）之间。
To become virtuous, one must practise virtuous acts until they become habitual, guided by phronesis (practical wisdom) that helps discern the right response in particular situations. Critics argue virtue ethics can be vague and offers little guidance for complex moral dilemmas.
要成为有德之人，必须不断实践有德的行为，使之成为习惯，并以明智（实践智慧）为指导，帮助在特定情境下做出正确判断。批评者认为美德伦理学可能过于含混，难以对复杂的道德两难提供具体指引。
11. Political Philosophy: Social Contract and the State | 政治哲学：社会契约与国家
Social contract theory explains the legitimacy of political authority by imagining that individuals in a 'state of nature' agree to form a state. Thomas Hobbes argued that in the state of nature, life is 'solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short,' a war of all against all. Therefore, rational individuals consent to give absolute power to a sovereign for security.
社会契约论通过设想自然状态下的个人同意建立一个国家，来解释政治权力的合法性。霍布斯认为，在自然状态下，生活“孤独、贫困、卑污、残忍而短寿”，是一切人对一切人的战争。因此，理性个体同意将绝对权力交给一个主权者以换取安全。
John Locke held a more optimistic view: the state of nature is governed by natural law and reason, but inconveniences in enforcing rights lead people to form a government with limited, fiduciary power to protect life, liberty, and property. If the government violates the trust, revolution is justified.
洛克持有更乐观的看法：自然状态由自然法和理性支配，但在实施权利时存在不便，促使人们建立一个权力有限且受托的政府，以保护生命、自由和财产。如果政府违背信托，革命就是正当的。
Jean-Jacques Rousseau's vision emphasised the 'general will,' which represents the common good and is not simply the sum of individual wills. By joining the social contract, individuals become free because they obey a law they prescribe to themselves as members of a sovereign community.
卢梭的设想强调“公意”，它代表共同利益，而非个体意志的简单相加。通过加入社会契约，个体变得自由，因为他们服从的是作为主权共同体成员为自己规定的法律。
12. Arguments for God's Existence and the Problem of Evil | 上帝存在的论证与恶的问题
The teleological (design) argument, advanced by William Paley, claims that the complexity and apparent purpose in nature imply a designer. Paley used the watch analogy: if you find a watch, its intricate parts working together for a purpose necessarily lead you to infer a watchmaker; similarly, the universe requires a divine designer.
目的论论证（设计论证）由佩利提出，主张自然界的复杂性和显见的目的暗示着设计者的存在。佩利用手表作类比：如果你在荒野中发现一块手表，其精密零件为着计时目的而配合运作，你必然推出存在一位钟表匠；类似地，宇宙也需一位神圣设计者。
The cosmological argument seeks the ultimate cause. Aquinas' Second Way argues that everything has a cause, and because an infinite chain of causes is impossible, there must be a first uncaused cause, which is God. Critics note that the argument might itself require a cause for God (an infinite regress) or commit the fallacy of composition.
宇宙论论证寻求第一因。阿奎那的第二路论证：每个事物都有原因，而因果链条不能无限回溯，因此必有一个最初的不受动的推动者，即上帝。批评者指出，该论证本身可能要求上帝也有原因（无限倒退），或犯下合成的谬误。
The problem of evil challenges the existence of an omnipotent, omnibenevolent God given the existence of evil. J.L. Mackie's logical problem of evil states the three propositions – God is omnipotent, God is wholly good, and evil exists – are inconsistent. Theodicies, such as the free will defence, attempt to reconcile God's goodness with evil by arguing that moral evil results from the misuse of free will, which is a greater good.
恶的问题挑战全能、全善的上帝是否存在，因为有恶存在。麦凯的逻辑恶问题指出，上帝全能、上帝全善和恶存在这三个命题互不一致。神义论，如自由意志辩护，试图调和上帝的善与恶的存在，认为道德之恶源于对自由意志的滥用，而自由意志本身是一种更大的善。
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