📚 Cambridge IGCSE Sociology: Vocabulary & Terminology Quick Revision Guide | 剑桥IGCSE社会学：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering sociology requires a clear understanding of its key terminology. This quick revision guide presents essential vocabulary for the Cambridge IGCSE Sociology course, pairing each term with a concise definition and a memory aid where helpful. By systematically reviewing these concepts, you will strengthen your ability to answer both short-answer and essay questions with precision.
掌握社会学需要清晰理解其核心术语。本速记指南呈现了剑桥IGCSE社会学课程的基本词汇，每个术语都配有简明定义和有用的记忆技巧。通过系统地复习这些概念，你将提高精确回答简答题和论述题的能力。
1. Culture, Norms and Values | 文化、规范与价值观
Culture describes the whole way of life of a group of people. It includes their language, beliefs, customs, rituals, and the material objects they create. Culture is learned, shared, and transmitted across generations, shaping how individuals perceive the world.
文化 描述了一个人群的整个生活方式。它包括他们的语言、信仰、习俗、仪式和所创造的物质对象。文化是习得的、共享的，并代代相传，塑造着个体感知世界的方式。
Norms are the unwritten rules of behaviour that define what is considered acceptable in a society. They guide everyday actions, such as standing in a queue, saying 'please' and 'thank you', or making eye contact. Norms can vary greatly between cultures.
规范 是界定一个社会中何谓可接受行为的不成文规则。它们指导日常行为，如排队、说“请”和“谢谢”或进行眼神交流。规范在不同文化中差异很大。
Values are the deeply held principles and beliefs that a society sees as important. They provide a moral compass and underpin norms. Examples include honesty, respect for elders, and the pursuit of education. While norms are specific rules, values are broader ideals.
价值观 是一个社会视为重要、根深蒂固的原则和信念。它们提供了道德指南针并支撑着规范。例如诚实、尊敬长者和重视教育。规范是具体规则，价值观则是更宽泛的理想。
Mores (pronounced 'mor-ays') are norms that carry strong moral significance. Breaking a more, such as committing theft or lying under oath, often results in severe social sanctions. Folkways, by contrast, are less strictly enforced everyday customs like table manners.
民德（发音为“more-ayz”）是带有强烈道德意义的规范。违反民德，如盗窃或作伪证，通常会招致严厉的社会制裁。相比之下，民俗 是像餐桌礼仪一样执行不那么严格的日常习俗。
Sanctions are rewards or punishments used to reinforce social norms. Positive sanctions include praise or a promotion; negative sanctions range from a disapproving stare to imprisonment. They can be formal (applied by institutions) or informal (arising from everyday interaction).
制裁 是用来强化社会规范的奖励或惩罚。正面制裁包括表扬或晋升；负面制裁则从责备的目光到监禁不等。它们可以是正式的（由机构实施）或非正式的（源于日常互动）。
2. Socialisation and Identity | 社会化与身份认同
Socialisation is the lifelong process through which individuals learn the culture of their society. It transmits norms, values, and roles, enabling people to function as members of the community. Failure to socialise adequately can lead to exclusion or deviance.
社会化 是个体学习其社会文化的终身过程。它传递规范、价值观和角色，使人们能够作为社群成员行事。社会化不足可能导致排斥或越轨行为。
Primary socialisation occurs in early childhood, mainly within the family. During this stage, children acquire language, basic norms, and a sense of self. It is the foundation for all later learning.
初级社会化 发生在幼儿期，主要是在家庭内部。在此阶段，儿童习得语言、基本规范和自我意识。它是所有后续学习的基础。
Secondary socialisation continues throughout life and takes place within peer groups, schools, the workplace, and the media. It reinforces and, at times, challenges the values learned in primary socialisation, helping individuals adapt to new roles.
次级社会化 贯穿一生，发生在同辈群体、学校、工作场所和媒体中。它强化且有时挑战初级社会化中学到的价值观，帮助个体适应新角色。
Agencies of socialisation are the institutions and groups that shape our behaviour. Key agencies include the family, education system, peer group, mass media, and religion. Each agency exerts a different kind of influence at different life stages.
社会化机构 是塑造我们行为的制度和群体。关键机构包括家庭、教育系统、同辈群体、大众媒体和宗教。每个机构在不同的生命阶段施加不同类型的影响。
The looking-glass self, a concept developed by Charles Cooley, suggests that we form our self-image based on how we think others perceive us. If we imagine others see us as capable, we begin to view ourselves that way, and vice versa.
镜中我，由查尔斯·库利提出的概念，表明我们基于自己认为他人如何看待我们来形成自我形象。如果我们想象他人视我们为有能力，我们便开始如此看待自己，反之亦然。
Role refers to the expected behaviour associated with a particular social position. Roles can be ascribed (given at birth, like 'son' or 'daughter') or achieved (earned through effort, like 'doctor'). Role conflict arises when the demands of two or more roles clash.
角色 指与特定社会位置相关联的预期行为。角色可以是先赋的（与生俱来，如“儿子”或“女儿”）或自致的（通过努力获得，如“医生”）。当两个或更多角色的要求发生冲突时，就会产生角色冲突。
3. Social Stratification and Social Mobility | 社会分层与社会流动
Social stratification describes the hierarchical arrangement of individuals and groups in society based on factors such as class, wealth, status, and power. It is a universal feature, but the degree of inequality and the openness of the system vary.
社会分层 描述的是基于阶级、财富、地位和权力等因素，个体和群体在社会中的层级排列。这是一个普遍特征，但不平等程度和体系的开放性各有不同。
Ascribed status is a social position fixed at birth, over which the individual has little control. Examples include sex, ethnicity, and the caste or class into which one is born. In closed systems, ascribed status largely determines life chances.
先赋地位 是个体在出生时即被确定、自身难以控制的社会位置。例如性别、种族以及一个人出生的种姓或阶级。在封闭体系中，先赋地位在很大程度上决定了生活机会。
Achieved status is a social position gained through personal effort, talent, or merit. Occupations such as teacher, athlete, or entrepreneur are achieved statuses. Open societies place greater emphasis on achievement over ascription.
自致地位 是通过个人努力、才能或功绩获得的社会位置。教师、运动员或企业家等职业都是自致地位。开放社会更强调成就而非先赋。
Life chances, a term popularised by Max Weber, refer to the opportunities an individual has to obtain valued resources such as health, education, and a comfortable income. Life chances are strongly influenced by social class, gender, and ethnicity.
生活机会，由马克斯·韦伯推广的术语，指个体获取诸如健康、教育和舒适收入等宝贵资源的机会。生活机会受社会阶级、性别和种族的强烈影响。
Social mobility is the movement of individuals or groups between social strata. It can be upward or downward, and intra-generational (within one person's lifetime) or inter-generational (between generations). In an open society, social mobility is relatively high.
社会流动 是个体或群体在不同社会阶层之间的移动。它可以是向上或向下的，也可以是代内（一个人一生之内）或代际（代与代之间）的。在开放社会中，社会流动相对较高。
4. Social Class, Poverty and Deprivation | 社会阶级、贫困与剥夺
Social class groups people according to their economic position, occupation, and lifestyle. Sociologists often divide society into upper, middle, and working classes, though boundaries can be contested. Class remains a powerful predictor of educational and health outcomes.
社会阶级 根据经济地位、职业和生活方式对人进行分组。社会学家通常将社会划分为上层、中层和下层阶级，尽管界限可能存在争议。阶级仍然是教育和健康结果的强有力预测因素。
Absolute poverty is a condition in which a person lacks the minimum resources needed for physical survival, such as food, clean water, and shelter. It is measured by a fixed poverty line and is more common in low-income countries.
绝对贫困 是指一个人缺乏维持身体生存所需的最低限度资源，如食物、清洁水和住所的状况。它通过固定的贫困线来衡量，在低收入国家更为常见。
Relative poverty defines poverty in relation to the average standard of living in a society. Someone is relatively poor if their income falls well below the median, preventing them from participating fully in normal social activities.
相对贫困 根据社会平均生活水平来定义贫困。如果一个人的收入远低于中位数，导致其无法充分参与正常的社会活动，他/她就处于相对贫困状态。
Cultural capital refers to the non-economic assets that promote social mobility, such as education, tastes, language, and knowledge. Pierre Bourdieu argued that middle-class families transmit cultural capital, giving their children an advantage in education.
文化资本 指促进社会流动的非经济资产，如教育、品味、语言和知识。皮埃尔·布迪厄认为，中产家庭传递文化资本，使其子女在教育中获得优势。
Material deprivation is the lack of money and physical resources needed for a decent standard of living. Poor housing, inadequate diet, and a lack of educational materials can all harm a child's development and school performance.
物质剥夺 是指缺乏体面生活所需的金钱和物质资源。恶劣的住房、不足的饮食以及缺乏学习材料都可能损害儿童的发展与学业表现。
5. Gender and Ethnicity | 性别与族群
Sex refers to the biological differences between males and females, such as chromosomes, hormones, and reproductive organs. Sociology distinguishes sex from gender, which denotes the socially constructed roles, behaviours, and expectations attached to being male or female.
生理性别 指男性和女性之间的生物学差异，如染色体、激素和生殖器官。社会学将生理性别与社会性别区分开来，后者指附加在男女性身上的社会建构角色、行为和期望。
Gender socialisation is the process through which individuals learn what society considers appropriate masculine and feminine behaviour. Toys, media, and parental treatment all contribute to reinforcing gender norms from an early age.
性别社会化 是个体学习社会认为合适的男性与女性行为的过程。玩具、媒体和父母的对待方式从幼年起便都有助于强化性别规范。
Ethnicity describes a shared culture, history, language, and often ancestry. It is not the same as race, which is a social category based on perceived physical differences. Ethnic identity can be a source of solidarity and pride but also of discrimination.
族群 描述的是共享的文化、历史、语言，通常还包括共同的祖先。它与种族不同，后者是基于感知到的生理差异的社会类别。族群认同可以成为团结与自豪的来源，也可能引发歧视。
Institutional racism occurs when the routine practices and policies of organisations, such as schools or the police, disadvantage ethnic minorities, even without individual prejudice. The Macpherson Report defined it as 'the collective failure of an organisation to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their colour, culture, or ethnic origin'.
制度性种族主义 发生在学校或警察等机构的常规做法和政策使少数族裔处于不利地位，即使没有个体偏见。麦克弗森报告将其定义为“组织因其肤色、文化或族裔出身而未能向人们提供适当和专业服务的集体失败”。
Intersectionality is the idea that social identities such as class, gender, and ethnicity overlap, creating unique experiences of privilege or oppression. A working-class woman from an ethnic minority may face multiple layers of disadvantage that cannot be understood by examining each factor in isolation.
交叉性 是指阶级、性别和族群等社会身份相互重叠，从而创造出独特的特权或压迫体验。来自少数族裔的工薪阶层女性可能面临多重不利，这些不利无法通过孤立地审视单一因素来理解。
6. The Family: Forms and Functions | 家庭：形式与功能
Nuclear family consists of two parents and their dependent children living together. Functionalists see it as the ideal family form for performing essential functions such as primary socialisation and the stabilisation of adult personalities.
核心家庭 由一对父母及其受抚养的子女共同生活构成。功能主义者视其为履行初级社会化和稳定成人人格等基本功能的理想家庭形式。
Extended family includes relatives beyond the nuclear unit, such as grandparents, aunts, and uncles. In contemporary societies, the 'modified extended family' maintains close ties although members may live apart, often supported by digital communication.
扩展家庭 包括核心单元以外的亲属，如祖父母、阿姨和叔叔。在当代社会，“变异的扩展家庭”尽管成员可能分居，但仍保持着密切联系，通常依靠数字通讯支持。
Reconstituted family (or blended family) is formed when one or both partners bring children from previous relationships into a new household. This family type has become more common with rising divorce and remarriage rates.
重组家庭（或混合家庭）是在一方或双方将前段关系中的子女带入新家庭时形成的。随着离婚和再婚率上升，这类家庭已变得更加普遍。
Symmetrical family, described by Young and Willmott, is one in which roles and responsibilities are shared more equally between husbands and wives. Both partners are likely to be in paid work and to contribute to domestic tasks, though critics argue full equality is rare.
对称家庭，由杨和威尔莫特描述，是夫妻之间角色和责任更加平等分担的家庭。双方都可能从事有偿工作并分担家务，尽管批评者认为完全平等的家庭很少见。
Familial ideology refers to the dominant societal belief that the nuclear family is the 'natural' and most desirable living arrangement. Feminist sociologists challenge this ideology, arguing that it obscures family diversity and can legitimise patriarchal control.
家庭意识形态 指社会中主导的一种信念，即核心家庭是“自然的”且最理想的居住安排。女性主义社会学家挑战这种观念，认为它掩盖了家庭多样性并可能使父权控制合法化。
7. Education: Functions and Differential Achievement | 教育：功能与成就差异
Formal curriculum (or official curriculum) is the planned programme of subjects and content taught in schools. It includes explicit knowledge and skills such as mathematics, literature, and science.
正式课程（或官方课程）是学校教授的、有计划的科目和内容纲要。它包含明确的知识与技能，如数学、文学和科学。
Hidden curriculum consists of the informal lessons and values transmitted through the school environment and routines.
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