📚 Cambridge IGCSE Geography Core Revision | 剑桥IGCSE地理核心知识点梳理
This article provides a structured review of the essential themes covered in the Cambridge IGCSE Geography syllabus. It is designed to help Year 11 learners consolidate their understanding and confidently approach the examination.
本文围绕剑桥 IGCSE 地理课程的核心主题，为 Year 11 学生提供系统的知识点梳理，帮助大家巩固理解，自信应考。
1. Population Dynamics | 人口动态
A population's size and growth depend on birth rates (CBR), death rates (CDR) and migration. The rate of natural increase is calculated as CBR − CDR, expressed per 1000 people per year.
人口数量和增长取决于出生率(CBR)、死亡率(CDR)和迁移。自然增长率 = 出生率 − 死亡率，按每千人每年计算。
Countries go through the Demographic Transition Model (DTM) in five stages, from high fluctuating birth and death rates (Stage 1) to low fluctuating rates (Stage 4) and possible decline (Stage 5). The UK is a typical Stage 4 country, while Niger is at Stage 2 with a high birth rate.
人口转变模型(DTM)分为五个阶段，从高出生率、高死亡率(第1阶段)到低出生率、低死亡率(第4阶段)，甚至人口下降(第5阶段)。英国是典型的第4阶段国家，而尼日尔处于第2阶段，出生率很高。
Population pyramids illustrate the age‑sex structure. A wide base indicates many young dependents, common in LEDCs. Narrower bases and broader tops indicate ageing populations in MEDCs, leading to economic challenges such as pension provision.
人口金字塔展示年龄‑性别结构。宽大的底部表明有大量年轻受抚养人口，常见于欠发达国家。较窄的底部和变宽的顶部意味着发达国家人口老龄化，带来养老金供给等经济挑战。
- Overpopulation occurs when resources cannot meet the needs, as in Bangladesh.
- 人口过剩 发生在资源无法满足需求时，例如孟加拉国。
- Under‑population happens when resources are underused relative to the population size, such as in Canada.
- 人口不足 则是相对于人口规模资源未被充分利用，如加拿大。
2. Migration | 人口迁移
Migration is the movement of people from one place to another with the intention of settling. Push factors drive people away (e.g. unemployment, natural disasters), while pull factors attract them (e.g. job opportunities, better healthcare).
迁移是指人们为了定居而从一个地方移动到另一个地方。推力因素把人推出(如失业、自然灾害)，拉力因素把人拉向目的地(如就业机会、更好的医疗)。
Internal migration, such as rural‑to‑urban movement in China, can lead to mega‑city growth and strain infrastructure. International migration includes voluntary (e.g. Turks to Germany in the 1960s) and forced (refugees from Syria).
内部迁移，例如中国的乡‑城迁移，可以造成特大城市增长和基础设施紧张。国际迁移包括自愿迁移(如20世纪60年代土耳其人到德国)和被迫迁移(叙利亚难民)。
A case study often examined is Mexico to the USA migration. The impacts on the origin include loss of working‑age population but remittance income. The destination gains a labour force but faces social tensions.
常见案例是墨西哥向美国的迁移。对迁出地的影响包括劳动年龄人口流失，但获得侨汇收入。迁入地获得劳动力，但面临社会紧张局势。
3. Settlement Patterns and Services | 聚落形态与服务
Settlement patterns can be dispersed, linear (along a road or river) or nucleated (clustered). The site and situation of a settlement influence its growth. A bridging point or defensive hilltop can become a settlement nucleus.
聚落形态可以是分散型、线型(沿道路或河流)或集聚型(簇状)。聚落的选址和区位影响其发展。桥梁点或防御性山顶可能成为聚落核心。
The hierarchy of settlements grows from hamlet to conurbation, with the threshold population needed to support services increasing at each level. A high‑order service (e.g. a university) requires a larger sphere of influence than a low‑order service (e.g. a corner shop).
聚落等级从小村庄上升到城市群，支持服务所需的人口门槛逐级增高。高阶服务(如大学)需要比低阶服务(如街角商店)更大的服务范围。
Urban land use models such as the Burgess (concentric rings) and Hoyt (sector) models explain residential patterns in MEDCs. In LEDCs, the urban structure often follows the Hoyt‑derived model with a CBD, spine of development and peripheral squatter settlements.
城市土地利用模型如伯吉斯(同心环)和霍伊特(扇形)模型解释了发达国家居住模式。在欠发达国家，城市结构常遵循霍伊特衍生模型，有中心商务区、发展脊柱和外围棚户区。
4. Plate Tectonics | 板块构造
The Earth's crust is divided into tectonic plates that float on the semi‑molten mantle. Plate boundaries are constructive (divergent), destructive (convergent subduction or collision) and conservative (transform).
地壳被分成漂浮在半熔融地幔上的构造板块。板块边界有建设型(张裂)、破坏型(俯冲或碰撞汇聚)和保守型(转换断层)。
At constructive margins (e.g. Mid‑Atlantic Ridge), plates move apart and magma rises to form new crust, causing gentle volcanic eruptions. At destructive margins where oceanic crust meets continental crust (e.g. Nazca and South American plates), subduction leads to powerful earthquakes and explosive andesitic volcanism.
在建设型边界(如大西洋中脊)，板块分离，岩浆上升形成新地壳，引起温和的火山喷发。在洋壳与陆壳相遇的破坏型边界(如纳斯卡板块与南美板块)，俯冲导致强烈地震和爆炸性的安山岩火山活动。
Conservative margins (e.g. San Andreas Fault) produce shallow‑focus earthquakes. Understanding the Richter and Mercalli scales helps measure magnitude and intensity. Case studies: the 2011 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami in Japan (destructive) and the 2010 Haiti earthquake (conservative‑related).
保守型边界(如圣安德烈亚斯断层)产生浅源地震。理解里氏震级和麦卡利烈度有助于测量规模与强度。案例研究：2011年日本东北大地震和海啸(破坏型边界)以及2010年海地地震(与保守型相关)。
5. Weather and Climate | 天气与气候
Weather is the day‑to‑day condition of the atmosphere; climate is the average weather over 30 years. Factors affecting temperature include latitude, altitude, distance from the sea and ocean currents.
天气是大气逐日的状况；气候是30年间的平均天气。影响温度的因素有纬度、海拔、距海远近和洋流。
Rainfall types are relief (orographic), convectional and frontal. Tropical rainforest climate near the equator has high temperature and heavy convectional rainfall year‑round, while hot desert climate has extreme diurnal ranges and very low rainfall.
降水类型有地形雨、对流雨和锋面雨。赤道附近的热带雨林气候全年高温多雨，以对流雨为主；热带沙漠气候日较差极大，降水量极低。
Climate graphs and synoptic charts are essential geographical skills. A case study such as the impacts of Typhoon Haiyan on the Philippines illustrates extreme weather risks and the importance of prediction and protection.
气候图表和天气形势图是重要的地理技能。超级台风海燕对菲律宾的影响等案例说明极端天气风险以及预警和防护的重要性。
6. Rivers and Coasts | 河流与海岸
River processes include erosion (hydraulic action, abrasion, attrition, solution), transportation (traction, saltation, suspension, solution) and deposition. These form landforms such as waterfalls, meanders, ox‑bow lakes and floodplains.
河流作用包括侵蚀(水力作用、磨蚀、磨圆、溶蚀)、搬运(拖曳、跃移、悬浮、溶解)和沉积。这些作用形成瀑布、曲流、牛轭湖和泛滥平原等地貌。
The long and cross profiles of a river change from source to mouth. In the youthful stage, vertical erosion dominates; in the old stage, lateral erosion and deposition create wide floodplains and deltas like the Ganges‑Brahmaputra delta.
河流的纵剖面和横剖面从源头到河口发生变化。在幼年期，垂直侵蚀为主；在老年期，侧向侵蚀和沉积形成宽广的泛滥平原，如恒河‑布拉马普特拉河三角洲。
Coastlines are shaped by wave types — constructive waves (low frequency, strong swash) and destructive waves (high frequency, strong backwash). Erosional features include cliffs, wave‑cut platforms, caves, arches and stacks. Depositional features are beaches, spits and bars.
岸线由波浪类型塑造——建设性波浪(低频率，强劲冲流)和破坏性波浪(高频率，强劲回流)。侵蚀地貌包括海蚀崖、波切台、海蚀洞、海蚀拱和海蚀柱。沉积地貌有海滩、沙嘴和湾口沙坝。
Case studies often examine the management of coastal erosion, such as the Holderness coast in England, comparing hard engineering (sea walls, groynes) and soft engineering (beach nourishment, managed retreat).
案例研究常考察海岸侵蚀管理，例如英格兰霍尔德内斯海岸，比较硬工程(海堤、丁坝)和软工程(补沙、有管理后退)。
7. Economic Activity and Energy | 经济活动与能源
Economic activities are classified into primary (extractive), secondary (manufacturing), tertiary (services) and quaternary (knowledge‑based). The Clark‑Fisher model shows how employment structure shifts as a country develops.
经济活动分为第一产业(采掘)、第二产业(制造)、第三产业(服务)和第四产业(知识型)。克拉克‑费希尔模型显示随着国家发展，就业结构如何转变。
Transnational corporations (TNCs) like Nike locate production in LEDCs to benefit from lower labour costs and incentives, but can create positive multiplier effects. However, they may also be criticised for poor working conditions.
像耐克这样的跨国公司把生产设在欠发达国家，以从较低的劳动力成本和优惠政策中获益，但也能产生正面的乘数效应。然而它们也可能因工作条件差而受到批评。
Energy sources divide into non‑renewable (fossil fuels, nuclear) and renewable (solar, wind, HEP). The UK’s energy mix has shifted from coal to renewables. A case study of the Three Gorges Dam in China illustrates HEP benefits (clean energy, flood control) and costs (displacement of 1.3 million people, sedimentation).
能源分为不可再生(化石燃料、核能)和可再生能源(太阳能、风能、水电)。英国的能源结构已从煤炭转向可再生能源。中国三峡大坝的案例体现了水电的好处(清洁能源、防洪)和代价(130万人移民、泥沙淤积)。
8. Environmental Risks and Benefits | 环境风险与效益
Human activities such as deforestation, fossil fuel combustion and intensive agriculture lead to climate change through enhanced greenhouse gas emissions. The consequences include rising sea levels, more extreme weather events and ecosystem disruption.
森林砍伐、化石燃料燃烧和集约化农业等人类活动通过增加温室气体排放导致气候变化。后果包括海平面上升、极端天气事件增多和生态系统破坏。
The Amazon rainforest case study highlights the value of ecosystems providing carbon storage, biodiversity and rainfall recycling, while threats come from cattle ranching, soya farming and logging. Sustainable management includes agroforestry and protected reserves.
亚马逊雨林案例突显了生态系统提供碳储存、生物多样性和降水再循环的价值，而威胁来自养牛业、大豆种植和伐木。可持续管理包括农林复合经营和保护区。
Environmental risks also include the impact of tourism in polar or mountainous regions where fragile ecosystems suffer from trampling, waste and infrastructure development. Ecotourism offers a more sustainable alternative.
环境风险还包括极地或山区旅游的影响，脆弱的生态系统遭受踩踏、废弃物和基础设施建设的破坏。生态旅游提供了更可持续的替代方案。
9. Development and the Development Gap | 发展与发展的差距
Development can be measured by economic indicators (GDP per capita) and social indicators (literacy rate, life expectancy, HDI). The development gap refers to the widening difference between MEDCs and LEDCs.
发展可以用经济指标(人均GDP)和社会指标(识字率、预期寿命、人类发展指数)来衡量。发展差距是指发达国家与欠发达国家之间日益扩大的差异。
Rostow’s model of development stages suggests countries progress from traditional society to high mass consumption, but it is criticised for being Eurocentric. The cycle of poverty explains how low savings and investment trap countries.
罗斯托的发展阶段模型认为国家从传统社会进入高消费阶段，但该模型因欧洲中心论而受到批评。贫困循环解释了低储蓄与低投资如何使国家陷入陷阱。
Aid types (emergency, bilateral, multilateral) and Fair Trade are strategies to reduce the gap. A case study of an NGO project such as WaterAid in Mali shows how small‑scale, bottom‑up schemes can improve water access and empower communities.
援助类型(紧急援助、双边、多边)和公平贸易是缩小差距的策略。马里 WaterAid 等非政府组织项目的案例显示了小规模、自下而上的方案如何改善供水并赋予社区力量。
10. Geographical Skills and Case Study Application | 地理技能与案例应用
IGCSE Geography requires competence in map reading, including grid references, measuring distances, interpreting contours and cross‑sections, and analysing photographs and graphs. These skills are tested in Paper 2.
IGCSE 地理要求掌握读图技能，包括网格坐标、量测距离、判读等高线和剖面图，以及分析照片和图表。这些技能在卷二中进行考核。
Case studies are a fundamental part of each theme. Examiners expect specific place detail: names, statistics and sequence of events. A strong answer compares case studies and evaluates management solutions.
案例研究是每个主题的基本部分。阅卷人期待具体的地点细节：名称、数据和事件顺序。高质量的回答会对比案例并评价管理方案。
For example, when comparing two contrasting urban areas, you might use São Paulo (LEDC) and London (MEDC), discussing self‑help housing schemes versus green‑belt policies. Always link back to the geographical concept.
例如，比较两个对比鲜明的城市区域时，可以使用圣保罗(欠发达国家)和伦敦(发达国家)，讨论自助住房计划与绿带政策。始终要联系地理概念进行阐述。
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