📚 Year 12 WJEC Philosophy: Key Terminology Quick-Memorisation Guide | WJEC 哲学：关键术语速记指南
Building a precise philosophical vocabulary is the most effective way to unlock higher marks in WJEC Year 12 Philosophy. This guide collates high-frequency terms from epistemology, philosophy of religion, and ethics aspects of the specification, with paired English–Chinese definitions designed for active recall. Use it alongside your revision notes to sharpen your essay precision and argument analysis.
构建精准的哲学术语库，是在 WJEC 十二年级哲学考试中拉开分数差距的利器。本指南按考纲整理了认识论、宗教哲学与伦理模块的高频术语，采用英中配对释义，方便你主动回忆。配合复习笔记使用，能显著提升你论文的严谨度和论证分析力。
1. Foundational Concepts | 基础认识论与逻辑概念
These core distinctions underpin all WJEC philosophical analysis. You will need them to evaluate arguments across every topic.
这些核心区分是一切 WJEC 哲学分析的基础，无论你在哪个主题进行论证评价，都会反复用到它们。
A priori: Knowledge justified independently of sense experience, relying solely on reason (e.g. 'All bachelors are unmarried').
先验：独立于感官经验、仅凭理性即可证成的知识（如“所有单身汉都未婚”）。
A posteriori: Knowledge that depends on sense experience or empirical evidence (e.g. 'The cat is on the mat').
后验：依赖感官经验或经验证据的知识（如“猫在垫子上”）。
Analytic truth: A statement that is true in virtue of the meanings of the words alone; denying it results in a contradiction (e.g. 'Triangles have three sides').
分析真：仅凭词义即可为真的陈述；否定它会陷入矛盾（如“三角形有三条边”）。
Synthetic truth: A statement whose truth depends on how the world is; not true by definition alone (e.g. 'The cat is on the mat').
综合真：真值取决于世界实际状况的陈述，并非只由定义决定（如“猫在垫子上”）。
Necessary truth: A proposition that could not have been false in any possible world (e.g. mathematical truths).
必然真：在所有可能世界中都不可能为假的命题（如数学真理）。
Contingent truth: A proposition that is true but could have been false under different circumstances (e.g. 'The cup is on the table').
偶然真：在当前为真，但在不同情况下可能为假的命题（如“杯子在桌上”）。
Deductive argument: An argument where the premises are intended to guarantee the conclusion; if valid and sound, the conclusion necessarily follows.
演绎论证：前提旨在必然推出结论的论证；如果有效且可靠，结论必定成立。
Inductive argument: An argument where the premises make the conclusion probable but do not guarantee it; common in science and design arguments.
归纳论证：前提使结论具有概率性而非必然性的论证；科学和设计论证中常见。
Validity: A property of deductive arguments: if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true; it concerns logical structure, not actual truth.
有效性：演绎论证的一种性质：如果前提为真，结论必然为真；关注的是逻辑结构而非事实真值。
Soundness: A deductive argument that is (a) valid and (b) has all true premises, thereby guaranteeing the conclusion.
可靠性：一个演绎论证同时满足 (a) 有效 且 (b) 所有前提为真，从而保证结论真实。
2. Arguments for God's Existence | 上帝存在的论证
The AS specification examines cosmological, teleological, and ontological arguments. Precision in using these terms is essential for accurate exposition and criticism.
AS 考纲要求考察宇宙论、目的论和本体论论证，准确使用下列术语对于正确阐述和批判至关重要。
Cosmological argument: An a posteriori argument inferring God as the first cause or necessary being from the existence of the cosmos (Aquinas’ Five Ways, Kalam).
宇宙论论证：一种后验论证，从宇宙的存在推出上帝是第一因或必然存在（阿奎那五路、卡拉姆论证）。
Kalam cosmological argument: A version emphasising that the universe had a beginning and therefore requires a personal cause (Al-Ghazali, William Lane Craig).
卡拉姆宇宙论论证：强调宇宙曾有开端，因此需要一个有位格的原因的版本（安萨里、威廉·莱恩·克雷格）。
Aquinas’ First Way: The argument from motion, concluding to an Unmoved Mover.
阿奎那的第一路：从运动的论证，推出一位不动的推动者。
Aquinas’ Second Way: The argument from causation, concluding to an Uncaused Cause.
阿奎那的第二路：从因果关系的论证，推出一位不受因的因。
Aquinas’ Third Way: The argument from contingency, concluding to a Necessary Being.
阿奎那的第三路：从偶然性的论证，推出一位必然存在。
Teleological argument: An a posteriori argument inferring a designer from apparent purpose or regularity in the world (Paley’s watchmaker).
目的论论证：一种后验论证，从世界表面上的目的性或规律性推出设计师存在（佩利的钟表匠）。
Design qua purpose: Evidence of design seen in the way parts of the universe fit together to fulfil a specific purpose.
目的性设计：从宇宙各部分配合实现特定目的的方式中看到的设计证据。
Design qua regularity: Evidence of design observed in the order and predictable patterns found in nature.
规律性设计：在自然界的秩序和可预测模式中观察到的设计证据。
Paley’s watchmaker analogy: The universe, like a watch, exhibits complexity that implies an intelligent designer (God).
佩利的钟表匠类比：宇宙如同钟表，其复杂性暗示着一位智慧的设计师（上帝）。
Hume’s criticisms of the design argument: Hume observed that the analogy between the universe and a machine is weak, an imperfect universe suggests an imperfect designer, and the argument cannot establish the God of classical theism.
休谟对设计论证的批评：休谟指出宇宙与机器的类比薄弱，不完美的宇宙暗示不完美的设计师，且论证无法确立古典有神论的上帝。
Ontological argument: An a priori argument that attempts to deduce God’s existence from the very concept of God (Anselm).
本体论论证：一种先验论证，试图从上帝的概念本身演绎出上帝的存在（安瑟伦）。
Anselm’s definition of God: ‘That than which nothing greater can be conceived.’
安瑟伦对上帝的定义：“那无法设想有比之更伟大的存在者”。
Gaunilo’s island: A parody argument claiming that by Anselm’s logic one could prove the existence of a perfect island, suggesting the reasoning is flawed.
高尼罗的岛屿：一个戏仿论证，声称按安瑟伦的逻辑也可以证明完美岛屿存在，暗示推理有缺陷。
Kant’s objection that existence is not a predicate: Kant argued that ‘existence’ is not a property that can be added to a concept; the ontological argument mistakenly treats it as one.
康德“存在不是谓词”的反对意见：康德认为“存在”并非可以附加到概念上的属性；本体论论证错误地将其当作谓词使用。
3. The Problem of Evil and Suffering | 恶与苦难问题
The problem of evil poses a powerful challenge to the coherence of the theistic God. You must be able to distinguish the logical and evidential forms and evaluate the major theodicies.
恶的问题对有神论上帝的连贯性构成有力挑战。你必须能区分逻辑问题和证据问题，并评价主要神义论。
Logical problem of evil: The claim that the existence of an omnipotent, omnibenevolent God is logically incompatible with the existence of evil (Epicurus, Mackie).
恶的逻辑问题：声称全能、全善的上帝存在与恶的存在在逻辑上不相容（伊壁鸠鲁、麦基）。
Inconsistent triad: Mackie’s formulation: God is omnipotent, God is perfectly good, yet evil exists. At most two can be true.
不一致三元组：麦基的表述：上帝全能、上帝全善、恶存在，三者中最多有两项为真。
Evidential problem of evil: The argument that the sheer amount, distribution, or pointless nature of suffering makes God’s existence highly improbable (Rowe’s fawn).
恶的证据问题：论证大量、分布或看似无意义的苦难使得上帝的存在高度不可能（罗的幼鹿）。
Theodicy: An attempt to justify God’s permitting evil; originally coined by Leibniz.
神义论：试图为上帝容许恶作辩护的努力；术语源自莱布尼茨。
Augustinian theodicy: Evil is privation of good resulting from the misuse of free will; all evil stems from the Fall, and suffering is just punishment or part of a larger harmonious order.
奥古斯丁神义论：恶是善的缺失，源于自由意志的误用；一切恶来自堕落，苦难是公正的惩罚或更大和谐秩序的一部分。
Original sin: The inherited condition of humanity after Adam and Eve’s disobedience, transmitting moral fault to all descendants.
原罪：亚当与夏娃悖逆后人类继承的状态，将道德过错传给所有后代。
Irenaean theodicy: Evil is a necessary means for soul-making; through facing challenges, humans freely develop virtues and grow into the likeness of God.
爱任纽神义论：恶是塑造灵魂的必要手段；通过面对挑战，人类自由地发展德性，长成上帝的模样。
Hick’s soul-making theodicy: A modern expansion of Irenaeus’s thought; God uses an epistemic distance to allow genuine free development, with the end goal of eventual universal salvation.
希克的灵魂塑造神义论：对爱任纽思想的现代发展；上帝使用认知距离以允许真实的自由成长，最终目标是普世得救。
Epistemic distance: God’s deliberate hiding in order to preserve human freedom and allow authentic moral growth.
认知距离：上帝刻意的隐藏，以保留人类的自由，并使真正的道德成长成为可能。
Process theology: God is not omnipotent but influences the world through persuasive love; evil exists because of the inherent freedom within the creative process (Whitehead, Griffin).
过程神学：上帝非全能，而是通过劝导之爱影响世界；恶因创造过程中固有的自由而存在（怀特海、格里芬）。
4. Religious Experience | 宗教经验
Arguments from religious experience claim that personal encounters with the divine can ground religious belief. Deal with classification, credibility, and sceptical challenges.
来自宗教经验的论证声称，个人与神的相遇能为宗教信仰奠基。需关注经验分类、可信度及怀疑论挑战。
Religious experience: A subjective encounter interpreted as an awareness of a transcendent reality or God.
宗教经验：被解释为对超越实在或上帝之察觉的主观相遇。
William James’ pragmatic argument: Religious experiences should be judged by their fruits – their positive moral and psychological effects validate them for the experiencer.
威廉·詹姆斯的实用论证：宗教经验应以果效评判——其积极的道德和心理效果向经验者自身确证了经验。
Mystical experience: A direct, intuitive experience of union with the divine; James identified four marks: ineffability, noetic quality, transiency, passivity.
神秘经验：与神合一的直接直觉经验；詹姆斯识别出四个特征：不可言喻、理智性、短暂性、被动性。
Ineffability: The quality of a mystical experience being beyond adequate expression in language.
不可言喻：神秘经验无法用语言充分表达的特质。
Noetic quality: Mystical experiences feel like states of knowledge, revealing deep truths.
理智性：神秘经验似乎携带深刻真理，令体验者获得洞见。
Swinburne’s principle of credulity: We should accept that what seems to be the case is probably the case, unless there are special counter-evidence considerations.
斯威伯恩的轻信原则：若无特殊反证，我们应当接受事情看起来所是的样子。
Principle of testimony: In the absence of defeaters, we should ordinarily trust the reports of others about their experiences.
证言原则：在没有推翻因素的情况下，我们通常应相信他人关于其经验的报告。
Corporate religious experience: A religious experience shared simultaneously by multiple people, said to strengthen credibility.
集体宗教经验：多人同时同地共享的宗教经验，被认为能增强可信度。
Conversion experience: A radical reorientation of life and belief, often sudden, centring on a new perception of the divine.
皈依经验：生命与信仰的根本转向，往往突然发生，以对神的新认知为中心。
5. Religious Language | 宗教语言
This unit explores whether language about God is meaningful. The debate between cognitivism and non-cognitivism, and between verification and function-based views, is central.
本单元探讨关于上帝的语言是否有意义。认知主义与非认知主义、证实论与功能论的争论是核心。
Cognitive religious language: The view that statements about God express factual claims that are true or false.
认知性宗教语言：认为关于上帝的陈述表达了可判断真假的事实性主张。
Non-cognitive religious language: The view that religious utterances do not state facts but express emotions, resolve, or a way of living.
非认知性宗教语言：认为宗教话语并非陈述事实，而是表达情感、决心或生活方式。
Apophatic theology (via negativa): The approach that God can only be described negatively – by saying what He is not – because finite language cannot capture the divine essence.
否定神学（否定之路）：主张只能用否定方式描述上帝——说上帝不是什么——因为有限语言无法把握神圣本质。
Cataphatic theology (via positiva): The approach that positive statements about God are possible, often understood analogically.
肯定神学（肯定之路）：主张可以正面描述上帝，通常以类比方式理解。
Analogy: Aquinas’ middle way; words are used neither univocally (exactly the same sense) nor equivocally (totally different), but analogically.
类比：阿奎那的中间道路；词语既非单义（完全同义）也非歧义（完全异义），而是类比使用。
Analogy of attribution: God is the cause of good qualities in creatures; the quality is attributed to God as its source (Fidonius’s example of healthy bull and urine).
比率类比（归因类比）：上帝是万物善质的根源；这一品质被归因于作为源泉的上帝（如斐迪尼乌思的健康公牛与尿液之例）。
Analogy of proportion: Creatures possess qualities in a limited way proportionate to their nature, while God possesses them infinitely and perfectly.
比例类比：受造物按其本性以有限方式拥有某些品质，上帝则以无限、完美的方式拥有。
Verification principle: Ayer’s logical positivist criterion: a statement is meaningful only if it is either analytic or empirically verifiable; religious language fails this test.
可证实性原则：艾耶尔的逻辑实证主义判准：一个陈述只有是分析真或经验可证实时才有意义；宗教语言未能通过检验。
Falsification principle: Flew’s challenge: a statement is factual only if evidence could in principle falsify it; believers refuse to count anything against their belief, making religious language vacuous.
证伪原则：弗卢的挑战：一个陈述是事实性的，仅当我们原则上能提出证据反证它；信徒拒绝接受任何反证，使得宗教语言空洞无意义。
Wittgenstein’s language games: Meaning arises from use within a specific ‘form of life’; religious language has its own internal rules and is cognitively meaningful within the religious community.
维特根斯坦的语言游戏：意义来自特定“生活形式”中的使用；宗教语言有其内在规则，在信仰群体内部具有认知意义。
6. Meta-Ethics | 元伦理学
Meta-ethics examines the meaning of moral language itself. WJEC requires you to classify theories as cognitivist or non-cognitivist and to evaluate naturalism, intuitionism, emotivism, and prescriptivism.
元伦理学检视道德语言自身的含义。WJEC 要求你将理论归类为认知主义或非认知主义，并评价自然主义、直觉主义、情绪主义和规约主义。
Cognitivism (meta-ethics): The view that moral statements express beliefs that can be true or false (e.g. naturalism, intuitionism).
认知主义（元伦理学）：认为道德陈述表达了可判真假的信念（如自然主义、直觉主义）。
Non-cognitivism: The view that moral utterances do not make truth-apt claims but express emotions or prescriptions (emotivism, prescriptivism).
非认知主义：认为道德话语不作出真假判断，而是表达情感或规约（情绪主义、规约主义）。
Ethical naturalism: Moral properties are identical to natural properties (e.g. pleasure, utility); moral knowledge is gained through empirical observation.
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