📚 Core Knowledge Review for Year 11 Cambridge IGCSE Psychology | 剑桥IGCSE心理学核心知识点梳理
This article provides a comprehensive review of the key knowledge required for Year 11 Cambridge IGCSE Psychology. It covers the six major approaches, classic studies, research methods and ethical guidelines. Use this revision guide to consolidate your understanding of biological, cognitive, learning, social and developmental topics as you prepare for your examinations.
本文全面梳理了Year 11剑桥IGCSE心理学必须掌握的核心知识，涵盖六大主要流派、经典研究、研究方法与伦理准则。请用这份复习指南巩固你对生物心理学、认知心理学、学习心理学、社会心理学和发展心理学等专题的理解，为考试做好充分准备。
1. Biological Approach: The Brain and Neurotransmission | 生物心理学：大脑与神经传递
The biological approach explains behaviour through physiological processes. It assumes that all thoughts, feelings and actions have a physical basis in the brain, hormones or genes. Key structures include the central nervous system (CNS), made up of the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which connects the CNS to the rest of the body.
生物心理学通过生理过程来解释行为。它假设所有的思想、情感和行动都具有大脑、激素或基因中的生理基础。核心结构包括由脑和脊髓组成的中枢神经系统（CNS），以及将CNS与身体其余部分连接起来的外周神经系统（PNS）。
Neurons are specialised cells that transmit information electrochemically. An action potential travels along the axon, triggering the release of neurotransmitters from the terminal buttons into the synapse. These chemicals bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, either exciting or inhibiting it. Serotonin regulates mood and sleep, while dopamine is involved in reward and motivation.
神经元是特化细胞，通过电化学方式传递信息。动作电位沿着轴突传导，促使轴突终末向突触释放神经递质。这些化学物质与突触后神经元上的受体结合，产生兴奋或抑制效应。血清素调节情绪与睡眠，多巴胺则与奖赏和动机有关。
Understanding neurotransmission helps psychologists explain disorders such as depression (linked to low serotonin levels) and addiction (dopamine pathways). Drug therapies, for instance SSRIs, block the reuptake of serotonin to increase its availability in the synapse, illustrating the link between biology and treatment.
理解神经传递有助于心理学家解释抑郁症（与血清素水平低相关）和成瘾（多巴胺通路）等障碍。例如SSRI类药物通过阻断血清素的再摄取，增加突触中血清素的可用量，从而体现了生物学与治疗之间的关联。
2. Biological Approach: Sleep and Dreams (Dement & Kleitman, 1957) | 生物心理学：睡眠与做梦（德门特与克莱特曼，1957）
Dement and Kleitman aimed to investigate the relationship between rapid eye movements (REM) and dreaming. They used a laboratory experiment with nine adult participants (seven males, two females) who slept in the lab while their brain activity (EEG) and eye movements (EOG) were recorded.
德门特与克莱特曼旨在探究快速眼动（REM）与做梦之间的关系。他们进行了一项实验室实验，被试为九名成人（七男二女），在实验室睡眠的同时记录其脑电活动（EEG）和眼动（EOG）。
Participants were woken during either REM or non‐REM sleep and asked whether they had been dreaming and to describe the content. In a second part, they were woken either 5 or 15 minutes after REM onset and asked to estimate how long they had been dreaming. Results showed that dreaming was recalled on 80% of REM awakenings, compared to only 7% of non‐REM awakenings. Estimated dream duration was accurate most of the time.
被试在REM或非REM睡眠期间被唤醒，询问是否正在做梦并描述梦境内容。在第二部分中，被试在REM开始后5分钟或15分钟被唤醒，并估计自己做梦的时长。结果发现，REM唤醒时有80%的试验能回忆出梦境，而非REM唤醒时仅7%。大多数情况下，被试对做梦时间的估计是准确的。
The study concluded that REM sleep is strongly associated with dreaming and that people can accurately judge the duration of their dreams. However, the small, unrepresentative sample and the artificial sleep environment limit generalisability. The repeated measures design also ensured that individual differences were controlled, increasing internal validity.
该研究得出结论：REM睡眠与做梦密切相关，且人们对梦境持续时间能做出准确判断。然而，样本量小且缺乏代表性，加上人工睡眠环境，限制了结果的推广性。重复测量设计则确保控制了个体差异，从而提高了内部效度。
3. Cognitive Approach: Memory Models and Key Studies | 认知心理学：记忆模型与核心研究
The cognitive approach focuses on internal mental processes such as memory, perception and thinking. The multi‐store model (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968) describes three memory stores: sensory register, short‐term memory (STM) and long‐term memory (LTM). Information moves from one store to another through attention and rehearsal.
认知心理学关注记忆、知觉和思维等内部心理过程。多存储模型（Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968）描述了三种记忆存储：感觉登记、短时记忆（STM）和长时记忆（LTM）。信息通过注意和复述从一个存储转移到另一个存储。
STM has a limited capacity of 7 ± 2 items and a duration of about 18– STM. The model has been supported by case studies such as HM, who could not form new long‐term memories after hippocampal damage.
短时记忆容量有限，为7 ± 2个项目，持续时间约18–30秒；而长时记忆的容量和持续时间几乎是无限的。语义编码在长时记忆中更为常见，短时记忆则以声学编码为主。该模型得到HM等个案研究的支持，他在海马体受损后无法形成新的长时记忆。
Bartlett (1932) challenged the view of memory as a passive copy. In his 'War of the Ghosts' study, participants recalled a Native American story, and their recall showed rationalisation, omissions and transformation to fit cultural schemas. This supported the idea of reconstructive memory, where existing knowledge influences what is remembered.
Bartlett (1932) 挑战了记忆是被动复制的观点。在他的“幽灵之战”研究中，被试回忆一个印第安民间故事，其回忆内容表现出合理化、省略和转变，以符合文化图式。这支持了记忆是重构的观点，即已有知识会影响所记住的内容。
Loftus & Palmer (1974) investigated the effect of leading questions on eyewitness testimony. In Experiment 1, participants watched film clips of car crashes and were asked about the speed using verbs like 'smashed' or 'hit'. The verb 'smashed' produced a higher estimated speed (40.8 mph) than 'contacted' (31.8 mph). In Experiment 2, those who heard 'smashed' were more likely to report seeing broken glass, even though none was present. This shows how post‐event information can distort memory.
Loftus & Palmer (1974) 研究了引导性问题对目击证词的影响。实验一中，被试观看车祸影片后，在询问车速时使用'smashed'或'hit'等动词。'smashed'组估算的平均车速（40.8 mph）高于'contacted'组（31.8 mph）。实验二中，听到'smashed'的被试更可能报告看到碎玻璃，尽管影片中并没有。这表明事后信息会扭曲记忆。
4. Cognitive Approach: Perception and Visual Illusions | 认知心理学：知觉与视错觉
Perception is the process by which the brain interprets sensory information. Gibson's direct theory argues that perception is innate and does not require prior learning; the environment provides sufficient cues, such as texture gradients and motion parallax. Gregory's constructivist theory, on the other hand, proposes that perception involves inference and is influenced by past experience.
知觉是大脑解读感觉信息的过程。吉布森的直接理论认为知觉是与生俱来的，不需要先前的学习；环境提供了足够线索，例如纹理梯度和运动视差。相反，格里高利的建构主义理论提出知觉涉及推理，并受过去经验的影响。
Gibson & Walk's (1960) visual cliff experiment tested depth perception in 36 infants aged 6–14 months. They were placed on a glass table that appeared to have a 'shallow' and a 'deep' side. Twenty‐seven infants crawled only to the shallow side, indicating depth perception. Even newborns showed signs of distress when lowered on the deep side, supporting the role of innate mechanisms.
Gibson & Walk (1960) 的视崖实验测试了36名6–14个月婴儿的深度知觉。他们被放置在看似有“浅侧”和“深侧”的玻璃桌上。27名婴儿只爬向浅侧，表现出深度知觉。甚至新生儿在被放向深侧时也表现出痛苦迹象，这支持了先天机制的作用。
Visual illusions, such as the Muller‐Lyer illusion and the Ponzo illusion, provide insight into how the brain interprets monocular depth cues. The Muller‐Lyer illusion is explained by misapplied size constancy scaling, while the Ponzo illusion arises because the converging lines create a sense of distance, making the upper line appear longer. Illusions highlight that perception is not always a direct copy of reality.
视错觉，如缪勒‐莱尔错觉和庞佐错觉，为了解大脑如何解释单眼深度线索提供了窗口。缪勒‐莱尔错觉可通过误用大小恒常性缩放来解释，而庞佐错觉源于会聚线条营造距离感，导致上方线条显得更长。这些错觉表明知觉并不总是现实的直接翻版。
5. Learning Approach: Classical and Operant Conditioning | 学习心理学：经典条件反射与操作性条件反射
The learning approach focuses on how behaviour is acquired through experience. Classical conditioning, first demonstrated by Pavlov (1927), involves learning through association. A neutral stimulus (NS), such as a bell, is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), such as food, which naturally elicits an unconditioned response (UCR). Eventually, the NS becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) that produces a conditioned response (CR) similar to the UCR.
学习心理学关注行为如何通过经验获得。巴甫洛夫（1927）示范的经典条件反射涉及通过联结进行学习。一个中性刺激（NS），如铃声，反复与自然引发无条件反应（UCR）的无条件刺激（UCS，如食物）配对。最终，NS成为条件刺激（CS），引发与UCR相似的条件反应（CR）。
Operant conditioning, developed by Skinner (1938), explains learning through rewards and punishments. Positive reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behaviour by adding a pleasant consequence; negative reinforcement increases it by removing an unpleasant stimulus. Punishment decreases the likelihood of a behaviour. Skinner demonstrated this using a 'Skinner box', where a rat learned to press a lever to receive food.
斯金纳（1938）提出的操作性条件反射通过奖励和惩罚解释学习。正强化通过添加愉快后果来增加行为发生的可能性；负强化则通过移除不愉快刺激来增加行为。惩罚降低行为发生的可能性。斯金纳使用“斯金纳箱”证明了这一点，箱中老鼠学会按压杠杆以获得食物。
Schedules of reinforcement influence response patterns: continuous reinforcement leads to rapid acquisition but quick extinction, whereas partial reinforcement, especially variable ratio scheduling, produces the most persistent behaviour. These principles are applied in education (token economies) and therapy (systematic desensitisation).
强化程式影响反应模式：连续强化导致快速习得但消退也快，而部分强化，尤其是可变比率程式，产生最持久的行为。这些原理已应用于教育（代币经济）和治疗（系统脱敏）。
6. Learning Approach: Social Learning Theory (Bandura et al., 1961) | 学习心理学：社会学习理论（班杜拉等人，1961）
Social Learning Theory (SLT) proposes that behaviour is learned not only through direct reinforcement but also through observation and imitation of role models. Bandura emphasised the role of cognitive mediational processes: attention, retention, reproduction and motivation (ARRM). Vicarious reinforcement occurs when an observer sees the model being rewarded, increasing the likelihood of imitation.
社会学习理论（SLT）提出，行为不仅通过直接强化习得，还通过观察和模仿角色榜样获得。班杜拉强调认知中介过程的作用：注意、保持、再现和动机（ARRM）。当观察者看到榜样得到奖励时，会发生替代强化，从而增加模仿的可能性。
Bandura, Ross & Ross (1961) carried out the famous Bobo doll study. Seventy‐two children (36 boys, 36 girls) aged 3–6 were pre‐tested for aggression levels and allocated to matched groups. One group watched an adult model behave aggressively towards a Bobo doll (hitting, kicking, using verbal aggression), another group observed a non‐aggressive model playing quietly, and a control group saw no model.
班杜拉、罗斯和罗斯（1961）进行了著名的波波玩偶研究。72名3–6岁的儿童（36男，36女）经过攻击性水平前测后被分配到匹配组。一组观察成人榜样对波波玩偶做出攻击行为（击打、踢打、使用言语攻击），另一组观察非攻击性榜样安静地玩耍，对照组则没有榜样。
After witnessing the model, children experienced mild frustration and were then observed in a room containing an array of toys, including a Bobo doll. Results showed that children in the aggressive model condition imitated significantly more specific aggressive acts. Boys showed more physical aggression, especially when the model was male. This confirmed that aggression can be learned through observation.
在观看榜样后，儿童被引发轻微挫折，随后在一个放有各种玩具（包括波波玩偶）的房间中被观察。结果显示，攻击性榜样条件下的儿童模仿了更多特定的攻击行为。男孩表现出更多身体攻击，尤其在榜样为男性时。这证实了攻击行为可通过观察习得。
7. Social Approach: Conformity (Asch, 1951) | 社会心理学：从众（阿希，1951）
Conformity is a change in behaviour or belief due to perceived group pressure. Asch (1951) designed a line judgement task to test whether people would conform to an obviously incorrect majority. In each trial, one naive participant was placed with 6–8 confederates who intentionally gave wrong answers on 12 out of 18 critical trials.
从众是指由于感知到的群体压力而改变行为或信念。阿希（1951）设计了一项线段判断任务，以测试人们是否会屈从于明显错误的多数人意见。每次试验中，一名真被试与6–8名假被试（同谋）坐在一起，后者在18次关键试验中的12次故意给出错误答案。
About 75% of participants conformed at least once, and the overall conformity rate was approximately 37% on the critical trials. Post‐experimental interviews revealed that participants conformed for two main reasons: normative social influence (to fit in and avoid rejection) and informational social influence (to be right, assuming the group knew better).
约75%的被试至少从众过一次，关键试验的整体从众率约为37%。实验后访谈显示，被试从众的两个主要原因：规范性社会影响（为了融入并避免被排斥）和信息性社会影响（为了正确，假设群体知道得更多）。
Asch identified several variables affecting conformity: group size (conformity increased up to about 3–4 confederates, then plateaued), unanimity (even one dissenter dramatically reduced conformity) and task difficulty (harder tasks increased conformity). The study, however, has been criticised for its artificial setting and lack of ecological validity.
阿希发现几个影响从众的变量：群体规模（从众率在约3–4名假被试时达到最高，此后趋于平稳）、一致性（哪怕只有一个反对者，也会大幅降低从众率）和任务难度（难度越大，从众率越高）。不过该研究因人造环境、缺乏生态效度而受批评。
8. Social Approach: Obedience (Milgram, 1963) and Prosocial Behaviour | 社会心理学：服从（米尔格拉姆，1963）与亲社会行为
Obedience involves following direct orders from an authority figure. Milgram (1963) recruited 40 male volunteers for a 'learning and memory' study. Participants assumed the role of 'teacher' and were instructed to administer increasingly strong electric shocks to a 'learner' (confederate) for incorrect answers, up to a maximum label of 450V (XXX).
服从涉及遵循权威人物的直接命令。米尔格拉姆（1963）招募了40名男性志愿者参加一项“学习与记忆”研究。被试扮演“老师”，被指示对“学生”（同盟者）的错误答案施加越来越强的电击，最高标称电压为450V（标注为“XXX”）。
No real shocks were given, but the confederate acted out increasingly distressed responses. Results showed that 65% of participants continued to the maximum level of 450V, despite the confederate's screams and eventual silence. Prods such as 'Please continue' and 'The experiment requires that you continue' were used, demonstrating the power of the situation.
实际上并没有真正的电击，但同盟者表现出越来越痛苦的反应。结果显示，65%的被试一直持续到最高450V，尽管同盟者发出尖叫并最终沉默。实验使用了“请继续”“实验要求你继续”等指令，展示了情境的强大力量。
Milgram's study raised serious ethical issues, including deception, lack of informed consent and extreme psychological distress. However, it provided profound insights into destructive obedience. Variations showed that proximity of the learner and legitimacy of the authority reduced obedience.
米尔格拉姆的研究引发了严重的伦理问题，包括欺骗、缺乏知情同意和极度心理痛苦。但它提供了关于毁灭性服从的深刻洞见。变体实验显示，学生的接近性和权威的合法性会降低服从率。
Prosocial behaviour and the bystander effect were studied by Latané & Darley (1968). They proposed a five‐stage decision model: noticing an event, interpreting it as an emergency, assuming responsibility, knowing how to help, and implementing the help. Diffusion of responsibility in groups explains why people are less likely to help when others are present.
拉坦内和达利（1968）研究了亲社会行为和旁观者效应。他们提出了一个五阶段决策模型：注意到事件、将其解释为紧急情况、承担责任、知道如何提供帮助以及实施帮助。群体中的责任分散解释了为什么有他人在场时人们帮助的可能性降低。
9. Research Methods: Designing Psychological Investigations | 研究方法：设计心理学调查
Cambridge IGCSE Psychology candidates must be able to design studies and evaluate methodology. Experiments are the most common method, allowing researchers to establish cause‐effect relationships. The independent variable (IV) is manipulated, and the dependent variable (DV) is measured. Extraneous variables must be controlled to prevent confounding.
剑桥IGCSE心理学考生必须能够设计研究并评估方法。实验是最常用的方法，可使研究者建立因果关系。通过操纵自变量（IV），测量因变量（DV），同时必须控制额外变量以避免混淆。
An experimental hypothesis should be directional (one‐tailed) when previous research suggests a predicted direction, or non‐directional (two‐tailed) when the relationship is uncertain. A null hypothesis states that there is no significant relationship between variables. Standardised procedures and instructions are essential for reliability and replicability.
当先前研究表明有预测方向时，应使用定向（单尾）假设；当关系不确定时，则使用非定向（双尾）假设。零假设声明变量之间无显著关系。标准化程序和指导语对确保信度和可重复性至关重要。
Sampling techniques include opportunity, random, stratified and volunteer sampling. Random sampling is ideal as it reduces bias, but it is often impractical. Stratified sampling ensures representation of subgroups. Ethical considerations when recruiting participants include obtaining informed consent from the individual
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