📚 Year 12 WJEC Sociology: Key Terms Memory Guide | WJEC Year 12 社会学：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering WJEC Year 12 Sociology begins with a solid grip on its specialist vocabulary. This memory guide breaks down the must-know terms from each core topic — theories, methods, education, family, stratification, and more — with clear English definitions followed immediately by their Chinese equivalents. Use these pairings, along with the embedded memory hooks, to speed up your revision and sharpen your exam answers.
掌握 WJEC Year 12 社会学，首先要牢固掌握学科的专业词汇。这本速记指南将每个核心课题（理论、方法、教育、家庭、分层等）的必学术语拆解为清晰的英文定义，并立即附上中文对应表述。利用这些中英配对以及文中穿插的记忆钩子，可以加快复习进度，并让你的考试作答更加精准。
1. Sociological Perspectives | 社会学视角
Functionalism sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability. Key thinkers: Durkheim, Parsons.
功能主义认为社会是一个复杂的系统，各部分协同运作以促进团结与稳定。代表人物：涂尔干、帕森斯。
Marxism focuses on class conflict between the bourgeoisie (owners of production) and the proletariat (workers). Social change is driven by economic contradictions.
马克思主义聚焦于资产阶级（生产资料占有者）与无产阶级（劳动者）之间的阶级冲突。社会变迁由经济矛盾驱动。
Feminism highlights gender inequality and patriarchy, arguing that society is structured by male dominance. Types: liberal, radical, Marxist, intersectional.
女性主义强调性别不平等与父权制，认为社会结构由男性支配所塑造。分支包括：自由派、激进派、马克思主义、交叉性女性主义。
Interactionism (social action) examines how individuals create society through everyday interactions, using symbols and language. Mead, Becker, Goffman.
互动论（社会行动理论）研究个体如何通过日常互动、运用符号和语言来创造社会。代表人物：米德、贝克尔、戈夫曼。
Postmodernism argues that society is fragmented, identities are fluid, and grand narratives (like Marxism) have lost their power to explain reality.
后现代主义主张社会是碎片化的、身份是流动的，宏大叙事（如马克思主义）已丧失解释现实的力量。
Structuralism vs. Social Action: Structural theories (functionalism, Marxism) see society shaping the individual; social action theories (interactionism) see individuals shaping society through meaning.
结构论与社会行动：结构理论（功能主义、马克思主义）认为社会塑造个体；社会行动理论（互动论）则认为个体通过意义创造社会。
2. Research Methods | 研究方法
Validity is the extent to which a research method measures what it claims to measure. High validity means the data reflects real life.
效度指研究方法在多大程度上测量了其声称要测量的内容。高效度意味着数据反映了真实生活。
Reliability is the consistency of a method; if repeated, it should produce similar results. Questionnaires often have high reliability.
信度指研究方法的一致性；如果重复使用，应产生相似的结果。问卷通常具有较高的信度。
Representativeness refers to whether the sample mirrors the target population. A large random sample improves representativeness.
代表性指样本是否反映了目标总体的特征。大容量随机抽样可提高代表性。
Primary data is collected first-hand by the researcher (e.g. interviews, questionnaires). Secondary data comes from existing sources (e.g. official statistics).
一手数据由研究者亲自收集（如访谈、问卷），二手数据来自既有资料（如官方统计）。
Qualitative data is in-depth, non-numerical (words, meanings); quantitative data is numerical and can be measured statistically.
定性数据是深入的非数值资料（文字、意义）；定量数据是数值型的，可用统计方法测量。
Triangulation combines methods (e.g. questionnaires + interviews) to cross-check findings and increase both validity and reliability.
三角互证结合多种方法（如问卷加访谈），以交叉核对发现，同时提高效度和信度。
Sampling techniques: random, stratified, snowball, quota. Stratified sampling ensures key subgroups are represented in proportion.
抽样技术：随机抽样、分层抽样、滚雪球抽样、配额抽样。分层抽样确保关键子群按比例被代表。
Verstehen (Weber): empathetic understanding of the meanings behind social action. Key in qualitative research.
诠表理解（韦伯）：对社会行动背后意义的一种共情式理解，是定性研究的关键概念。
3. Education | 教育
Hidden curriculum refers to the informal lessons taught in schools — norms, values, obedience — which prepare students for adult roles.
隐性课程指学校中非正式传授的经验——规范、价值观、服从——使学生为成年人角色做好准备。
Cultural capital (Bourdieu): the knowledge, attitudes, and tastes that the middle class uses to succeed in the education system.
文化资本（布迪厄）：中产阶级用以在教育体系中取得成功所具备的知识、态度和品味。
Labelling theory (Becker) argues that teachers attach labels to students, and these labels become self-fulfilling prophecies, affecting achievement.
标签理论（贝克尔）认为教师给学生贴上标签，这些标签成为自我实现的预言，影响学业成就。
Material deprivation refers to the lack of money and resources (housing, diet, educational materials) that lower‐income students face.
物质剥夺指低收入学生面临的金钱和资源匮乏（住房、饮食、学习资料）。
Streaming and setting group students by perceived ability, often reinforcing inequalities as working-class pupils are over-represented in lower sets.
分轨与分层按感知到的能力给学生分组，常常加剧不平等，因为工薪阶层学生在低层组中比例偏高。
Correspondence principle (Bowles & Gintis): the education system mirrors the hierarchy and alienation of the capitalist workplace.
对应原则（鲍尔斯与金提斯）：教育体系反映了资本主义职场的等级制和异化。
Ethnicity and achievement: differences in attainment may be explained by factors such as teacher expectations, ethnocentric curriculum, and racism.
族裔与成就：成就差异可能由教师期望、族裔中心课程和种族主义等因素解释。
4. Families & Households | 家庭与住户
Nuclear family: a two-generation family of a married couple and their biological children, living in the same household.
核心家庭：由已婚夫妇及其亲生子女组成的两代家庭，生活在同一住户中。
Extended family: a family grouping that includes relatives beyond the nuclear family, such as grandparents, aunts, and cousins.
扩展家庭：包括核心家庭以外亲属的家庭群体，如祖父母、叔姨、堂表亲。
Patriarchy: a social system in which men hold primary power and predominate in roles of political leadership, moral authority, and control of property.
父权制：一种社会体制，男性掌握主要权力并在政治领导、道德权威和财产控制中占据主导地位。
Feminist view of the family: see the family as a site of oppression, reinforcing gender roles and women's unpaid domestic labour.
女性主义的家庭观：视家庭为压迫场所，强化性别角色和女性的无偿家务劳动。
Functionalist view of the family: the family fulfils essential functions — primary socialisation, stabilisation of adult personalities (Parsons).
功能主义的家庭观：家庭履行基本功能——初级社会化、成年人格的稳定（帕森斯）。
Secularisation has influenced family life by reducing the stigma around divorce and cohabitation, contributing to greater family diversity.
世俗化通过减少离婚和同居的污名化影响了家庭生活，促进了家庭形式的多元化。
Domestic division of labour: how tasks in the home are allocated between men and women. Research shows women still bear a 'dual burden'.
家务分工：男女之间如何分配家务。研究显示女性仍承担“双重负担”。
5. Social Stratification | 社会分层
Social stratification is a system by which society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy. Forms include class, caste, gender, and ethnicity.
社会分层是社会将人群按等级排列的系统。形式包括阶级、种姓、性别、族裔。
Social class (Marxist): determined by ownership of the means of production. Bourgeoisie vs. proletariat.
社会阶级（马克思主义）：由生产资料所有权决定。资产阶级对无产阶级。
Weberian stratification: class is not just economic; it also includes status (prestige) and party (power).
韦伯式分层：阶级不只是经济的；还包括地位（声望）和党派（权力）。
Social mobility is the movement of individuals or groups between social positions. Can be intergenerational (between generations) or intragenerational (within a lifetime).
社会流动指个体或群体在社会位置间的移动。可以是代际流动（两代之间）或代内流动（一生之内）。
Absolute poverty is a lack of basic necessities for survival; relative poverty means being poor in relation to the average standard of living in a society.
绝对贫困是缺乏生存的基本必需品；相对贫困是指与某一社会的平均生活水平相比处于贫困状态。
Life chances (Weber): the opportunities individuals have to improve their quality of life, shaped by factors such as class, gender, and ethnicity.
人生机会（韦伯）：个体改善生活质量的机会，受阶级、性别和族裔等因素影响。
Embourgeoisement thesis suggests working-class families adopting middle-class lifestyles and values as they become more affluent.
资产阶级化论认为随着工薪家庭生活日益富裕，他们开始接纳中产阶级的生活方式和价值观。
6. Culture & Identity | 文化与身份
Culture is the way of life of a society or group, including language, norms, values, beliefs, and material objects.
文化是一个社会或群体的生活方式，包括语言、规范、价值、信仰和物质载体。
Subculture is a group whose norms and values differ from the mainstream culture, but it remains part of the larger society.
亚文化指其规范与价值观不同于主流文化的群体，但仍属于更大社会的一部分。
Norms are unwritten rules of behaviour; values are deeply held beliefs about what is good and desirable.
规范是不成文的行为准则；价值观是关于何为善与可取的深层信念。
Socialisation is the lifelong process of learning the culture of a society. Primary socialisation occurs in the family; secondary in schools, media, etc.
社会化是学习社会文化的终身过程。初级社会化发生在家庭；次级社会化在学校、媒体等。
Identity is how individuals see and define themselves and how others see them. Aspects: gender, ethnicity, class, sexuality, age, disability.
身份认同是个体如何看待和定义自己以及他人如何看待他们。维度包括：性别、族裔、阶级、性取向、年龄、残障。
Global culture refers to the spread of similar norms, values, and consumer goods across the world, often through media and TNCs.
全球文化指类似的规范、价值观和消费品通过媒体和跨国公司在世界范围内的传播。
Cultural diversity describes the differences between cultures, both across and within societies. The UK is often described as a multicultural society.
文化多样性描述文化之间的差异，既包括不同社会之间，也包括同一社会内部。英国常被称为多元文化社会。
7. Socialisation & the Life Course | 社会化与生命历程
Primary socialisation is the first stage, where infants learn basic norms and values from their immediate family, typically in the early years.
初级社会化是第一阶段，婴幼儿在家庭中学习基本规范与价值观，通常发生在早年。
Secondary socialisation continues at school, peer groups, workplace, and through media, shaping more complex social skills and roles.
次级社会化在学校、同伴群体、职场和媒体中持续进行，塑造更复杂的社会技能与角色。
Agencies of socialisation: the family, education, peer group, mass media, religion, and workplace.
社会化机构：家庭、教育、同伴群体、大众传媒、宗教和职场。
Anticipatory socialisation is rehearsing for future roles, such as a child 'playing house' to learn adult roles.
预期社会化是为未来角色进行预演，如儿童“过家家”学习成人角色。
Resocialisation involves unlearning old norms and learning new ones, often in total institutions like prisons or the military.
再社会化涉及摒弃旧规范并学习新规范，常发生在监狱或军队等全控机构中。
Life course analysis examines how individuals move through socially defined stages (childhood, youth, adulthood, old age) and the changing nature of these stages.
生命历程分析考察个体如何经历社会定义的阶段（童年、青年、成年、老年）以及这些阶段性质的变化。
The social construction of childhood: the meaning of 'childhood' varies across cultures and history; it is not biologically fixed but socially created.
童年的社会建构：“童年”的含义因文化和历史而异；它不是生物既定，而是社会建构的。
8. Power, Politics & Social Control | 权力、政治与社会控制
Power (Weber) is the ability to achieve one's will even in the face of resistance. It can be coercive, legitimate, or charismatic.
权力（韦伯）是即使遭遇抵抗也能实现自己意愿的能力。可以是强制型、合法型或魅力型。
Authority is legitimate power accepted by people as right. Weber distinguishes traditional, rational-legal, and charismatic authority.
权威是被人们承认为正当的合法权力。韦伯区分了传统型、法理型和魅力型权威。
Ideology is a set of ideas and beliefs that justify the interests of a dominant group, often presented as common sense (Gramsci's hegemony).
意识形态是一套为统治群体利益辩护的思想和信念，常被呈现为常识（葛兰西的文化霸权）。
Social control refers to the mechanisms by which society regulates individual and group behaviour to ensure conformity. Formal (law, police) and informal (peer pressure).
社会控制指社会用以规制个体和群体行为以确保顺从的机制。包括正式控制（法律、警察）和非正式控制（同伴压力）。
State is the set of institutions that possesses a monopoly on the legitimate use of force within a territory — government, judiciary, civil service, army.
国家是在某一领土内垄断合法使用暴力的机构集合——政府、司法、公务员、军队。
Pluralism argues that power is widely distributed among competing interest groups, with the state acting as a neutral arbiter.
多元主义主张权力广泛分布于相互竞争的利益集团之间，国家扮演中立仲裁者角色。
Elite theory (Pareto, Mosca) maintains that a small, cohesive elite inevitably holds real power, regardless of democratic forms.
精英理论（帕累托、莫斯卡）认为，无论民主形式如何，一个凝聚力强的小型精英群体都不可避免地掌握着实权。
9. Crime & Deviance | 犯罪与越轨
Deviance is any behaviour that violates social norms, though it is not necessarily illegal. Deviance is culturally and historically relative.
越轨指任何违反社会规范的行为，但不一定违法。越轨具有文化和历史的相对性。
Crime is a specific form of deviance that breaks formal, written laws and can be punished by the state.
犯罪是越轨的一种特殊形式，它违反正式的成文法律，并可能受到国家惩罚。
Social construction of crime: an act becomes a crime only when labelled as such by law, which can change over time (e.g. homosexuality).
犯罪的社会建构：一个行为只有在法律将其标签为犯罪时才成为犯罪，这随着时间的推移可能改变（如同性恋）。
Anomie (Durkheim): a state of normlessness where society fails to regulate people's desires, leading to rising deviance.
失范（涂尔干）：一种无规范状态，社会未能有效调控人们的欲望，导致越轨上升。
Labelling theory of crime (Becker): deviance is the result of a label applied by those with power; once labelled, individuals may adopt a deviant identity.
犯罪标签理论（贝克尔）：越轨是掌权者贴上标签的结果；一旦被贴上标签，个体可能接纳越轨身份。
White-collar crime (Sutherland): crime committed by people of high social status in the course of their occupation, often more harmful but less punished.
白领犯罪（萨瑟兰）：由高社会地位者在职业过程中实施的犯罪，往往危害更大但所受惩罚较轻。
Moral panic (Cohen): an exaggerated social reaction to a group or behaviour perceived as a threat to societal values, often amplified by the media.
道德恐慌（科恩）：社会对某个被认为威胁社会价值的群体或行为的过度反应，常被媒体放大。
10. Memory Tips for Sociology Terms | 社会学术语记忆技巧
Chunking by perspective: Group terms under Functionalism, Marxism, Feminism, and Interactionism. Knowing the thinker's broad argument helps recall associated concepts.
按视角分块：将术语归入功能主义、马克思主义、女性主义和互动论。了解思想家的核心论点有助于回忆相关概念。
Use acronyms: For education research, remember 'MVCR' — Material deprivation, Value labels, Cultural capital, Racism. Create your own for each topic.
使用首字母缩略词：在教育研究中记住“MVCR”——物质剥夺、价值观标签、文化资本、种族主义。为每个课题自创缩略词。
Visual stories: Link abstract words to a vivid image. For 'anomie', imagine a compass spinning aimlessly without a magnetic north.
视觉故事：将抽象词汇与生动图像联系起来。对于“失范”，想象一个指南针没有磁北极而胡乱旋转。
Dual coding: Each time you review an English definition, immediately say its Chinese counterpart aloud. The bilingual coding strengthens both memory traces.
双重编码：每次复习英文定义时，立刻大声说出对应的中文。双语编码能同时强化两套记忆痕迹。
Spaced repetition: Review terms after 1 day, 3 days, and 7 days. Test yourself by covering one column (English or Chinese) and recalling the other.
间隔重复：在1天后、3天后、7天后复习术语。遮住其中一栏（英文或中文），尝试回忆另一栏。
Reciprocal peer quizzing: Pair up and challenge each other: one says "verstehen," the other must define it in English and Chinese in 30 seconds.
同伴互测：两人一组互相挑战：一人说“verstehen”，另一人必须在30秒内用英文和中文给出定义。
Use two-column note sheets: Draw a line down a page, write English terms on the left, Chinese definitions on the right. Fold to test while commuting.
使用双栏笔记：在纸上画一条竖线，左侧写英文术语，右侧写中文定义。折叠后可在通勤时自测。
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