📚 Year 12 CIE Philosophy: Key Terms Memorisation Guide | Year 12 CIE 哲学：词汇术语速记指南
Welcome to this targeted terminology guide for Year 12 CIE Philosophy. A firm grasp of the technical vocabulary is absolutely essential for analysing arguments, constructing robust essays, and scoring high marks on your examinations. This article organises the core terms by topic, presents each with a clear English definition immediately followed by its Chinese equivalent, and incorporates memory-friendly patterns to accelerate your revision. Use it alongside your syllabus notes and past papers to reinforce active recall.
欢迎使用这份为 Year 12 CIE 哲学量身打造的术语速记指南。牢固掌握专业词汇是分析论证、构建严密论文并在考试中夺取高分的关键。本文按专题将核心术语分类，每个词条先给出清晰的英文定义，紧跟一份对应的中文释义，并结合记忆友好型模式来加速复习。请配合教学大纲笔记和历年真题使用，强化主动回忆。
1. Logic and Argumentation | 逻辑与论证
A sound understanding of logical structure underpins everything you do in philosophy. The terms in this section allow you to identify the skeleton of any argument, evaluate its strength, and spot common faults. Deductive and inductive reasoning are compared explicitly so that you never confuse validity with truth.
对逻辑结构的透彻理解是哲学学习的基石。本节术语帮助你辨识任何论证的骨架、评估其强弱，并识别常见缺陷。演绎与归纳推理被明确对比，使你绝不再混淆有效性与真值。
Argument: A connected series of statements (premises) intended to establish another statement (conclusion). Philosophy is built entirely on arguments, not mere opinions.
论证： 一系列相互关联的陈述（前提），目的是确立另一个陈述（结论）。哲学完全建立在论证之上，而非单纯的看法。
Premise & Conclusion: The premise provides the reason or evidence; the conclusion is what the arguer wants you to accept. An argument may have several premises but one main conclusion.
前提与结论： 前提提供理由或证据；结论是论证者希望听者接受的命题。一个论证可以有多个前提，但通常只有一个主结论。
Deductive argument: An argument where the conclusion is supposed to follow necessarily from the premises. If the premises are true, the conclusion must be true. Assessed by validity and soundness.
演绎论证： 结论被设定为必然地从前提推出的论证。若前提为真，结论必然为真。通过有效性与可靠性来评估。
Inductive argument: The premises are intended to make the conclusion probable, not certain. It is evaluated as strong or weak, never simply 'true'. Scientific generalisations are inductive.
归纳论证： 前提只为结论提供或然性支持，而非确定性。其强弱程度被评估，不简单用“真”来判定。科学概括属于归纳。
Valid & Sound: A deductive argument is valid if whenever all premises are true, the conclusion must be true. It is sound if it is valid and all premises are actually true.
有效与可靠： 演绎论证有效是指：如果所有前提为真，结论必然为真。若论证有效且所有前提事实上为真，则该论证可靠（sound）。
Modus Ponens & Modus Tollens: Common valid forms. Modus ponens: If P → Q, P, therefore Q. Modus tollens: If P → Q, ¬Q, therefore ¬P. Recognising these patterns speeds up analysis.
肯定前件式 & 否定后件式： 常见有效推理形式。肯定前件式：若 P → Q，P成立，则Q。否定后件式：若 P → Q，非Q，则非P。识别这些模式能加速分析。
Fallacy: A mistake in reasoning that weakens an argument. Fallacies can be formal (logical structure error) or informal (problematic content, e.g., ad hominem).
谬误： 推理中削弱论证的错误。谬误可分为形式谬误（逻辑结构错误）和非形式谬误（内容不当，如人身攻击）。
2. Epistemology: Knowledge and Justification | 认识论：知识与辩护
Epistemology examines what knowledge is, how we acquire it, and the limits of what we can know. CIE expects you to evaluate the tripartite definition of knowledge, the challenges posed by Gettier cases, and the competing theories of justification. The analytic/synthetic and a priori/a posteriori distinctions are fundamental to the rationalism–empiricism debate.
认识论探讨知识是什么、如何获得知识以及我们认知的界限。CIE 希望你能够评估知识的三元定义、盖提尔难题带来的挑战，以及各种辩护理论的竞争。分析/综合区分与先天/后天区分是理性主义与经验主义之争的基石。
Knowledge (JTB): Traditionally defined as justified true belief: S knows that p iff p is true, S believes that p, and S is justified in believing that p. Gettier cases show this analysis may be insufficient.
知识（JTB 三元定义）： 传统定义为被辩护的真信念：S知道命题p，当且仅当p为真、S相信p，且S有辩护地相信p。盖提尔反例表明这一定义可能不充分。
A priori / A posteriori: e (e.g., 2+2=4). A posteriori knowledge depends on experience or empirical evidence (e.g., 'Water boils at 100 °C').
先天知识 / 后天知识： 先天知识的辩护独立于经验（如2+2=4）。后天知识依赖于经验或实证证据（如“水在100°C沸腾”）。
Analytic / Synthetic: An analytic statement is true solely in virtue of the meaning of its words ('All bachelors are unmarried'). A synthetic statement's truth depends on how the world is ('The cat is on the mat').
分析陈述 / 综合陈述： 分析陈述的真仅取决于词语的含义（“所有单身汉都未婚”）。综合陈述的真则取决于世界的实际状况（“猫在垫子上”）。
Foundationalism: The view that all justified beliefs rest on a foundation of basic beliefs, which are self-evident or incorrigible, and from which other beliefs are inferred. Challenges include identifying a secure foundation.
基础主义： 认为所有得到辩护的信念最终奠基于基础信念，这些基础信念是自明的或不可纠正的，其余信念由此推出。挑战在于如何确认牢不可破的基础。
Coherentism: Justification arises from a belief's coherence within a whole system of beliefs. No belief is foundational; mutual support provides the justification. Critics argue circularity is a problem.
融贯论： 辩护源于信念在整个信念体系内的融贯一致。不存在基础信念；相互支持提供了辩护。批评者指出循环论证的风险。
Reliabilism: A belief is justified if it is produced by a reliable cognitive process (e.g., perception, memory). This theory shifts focus from having reasons to the reliability of the belief-forming mechanism.
可靠主义： 信念只要由一个可靠的认知过程（如感知、记忆）产生，就是得到辩护的。该理论把焦点从拥有理由转移到信念形成机制的可靠性。
Scepticism: The view that we lack knowledge in some area. Global scepticism doubts all knowledge; local scepticism targets specific domains, such as the external world or other minds.
怀疑论： 认为我们在某领域缺乏知识的观点。全局怀疑论质疑所有知识；局部怀疑论针对特定领域，如外部世界或他心。
3. Philosophy of Religion: Core Concepts | 宗教哲学：核心概念
The Philosophy of Religion module requires you to dissect the classic arguments for God's existence and the problem of evil. Memorising precise definitions of divine attributes and the structure of each argument will enable you to evaluate whether they are convincing. Keep the distinctions between deductive and inductive formulations clear.
宗教哲学模块要求你剖析上帝存在的经典论证以及恶的问题。记住神圣属性的精确定义和每个论证的结构，能帮助你评价它们是否令人信服。请保持演绎版与归纳版论证的区分清晰。
Teleological argument: Also called the design argument. It infers an intelligent designer from the apparent order, complexity, and purpose in the world. Paley's watchmaker analogy is the classic example.
目的论论证： 又称设计论证。从世界中显现的秩序、复杂性与目的性推断出一位智能设计者。佩利的表匠类比是经典例子。
Cosmological argument: Reasons from the existence of the universe to a first cause or necessary being. Aquinas' Five Ways include key versions. The central claim: every contingent thing requires an explanation.
宇宙论论证： 从宇宙的存在推理至第一因或必然存在者。阿奎那的“五路证明”包含重要版本。核心主张：每一个偶存物都需要一个解释。
Ontological argument: A purely a priori argument that derives God's existence from the very concept of a perfect being. Anselm's version: God is 'that than which nothing greater can be conceived', and existence in reality is greater than existence only in the understanding.
本体论论证： 纯粹先天的论证，从完美存在的概念本身推导出上帝的存在。安瑟伦的版本：上帝是“可设想之无与伦比者”，在现实中存在比仅在理解中存在更伟大。
Omnipotence & Omnibenevolence: Omnipotence means all-powerful, though philosophers debate whether this includes the power to do logically impossible things. Omnibenevolence means all-loving or perfectly good. Both are central to the logical problem of evil.
全能 & 全善： 全能指全然的权能，哲学家争论其是否包含能做逻辑上不可能之事的能力。全善指全然的爱或完美至善。二者是恶的逻辑问题的关键。
Theodicy: An attempt to justify God's goodness despite the existence of evil. Augustine's theodicy emphasises free will and the fall; Irenaeus' soul-making theodicy sees evil as necessary for moral and spiritual growth.
神义论： 在恶存在的前提下为上帝的善辩护的尝试。奥古斯丁神义论强调自由意志与原罪；爱任纽的“灵魂塑造”神义论将恶视为道德与灵性成长所必需的。
Free will defence: Often used in response to the logical problem of evil. It argues that morally significant free will is a great good, and God cannot guarantee that creatures never misuse it without removing that freedom.
自由意志辩护： 常用于回应恶的逻辑问题。它主张具有道德意义的自由意志是一种极大的善，上帝若不能保证受造物永不滥用它，则不能在不取消自由的情况下做到这一点。
Religious experience: An experience interpreted within a religious framework, such as a sense of the divine presence. William James' four hallmarks (passivity, ineffability, noetic quality, transiency) are often examined.
宗教经验： 在宗教框架内解释的经验，如对神圣临在的感知。威廉·詹姆斯的四个特征（被动性、不可言喻、知悉性、短暂性）常被考核。
4. Moral Philosophy: Normative Ethics | 道德哲学：规范伦理学
Normative ethics sets the rules for right and wrong. CIE focuses on three major theories: utilitarianism, Kantian deontology, and virtue ethics. You must be able to compare their criteria for moral action, explain key distinctions (act vs. rule, hypothetical vs. categorical imperative), and discuss the meta-ethical positions that underpin them.
规范伦理学规定了对错规范。CIE 聚焦三大理论：功利主义、康德义务论与美德伦理学。你必须能够比较它们对道德行为的评判标准，解释关键区分（行为功利主义与规则功利主义、假言令式与定言令式），并讨论支撑它们的元伦理学立场。
Utilitarianism: An ethical theory judging actions by their consequences: the greatest happiness for the greatest number. Bentham's hedonic calculus focuses on pleasure; Mill distinguishes higher and lower pleasures.
功利主义： 以后果判断行为对错的伦理理论：追求最多数人的最大幸福。边沁的苦乐计算聚焦快乐；密尔区分了高级快乐与低级快乐。
Act vs. Rule utilitarianism: Act utilitarianism applies the utility principle directly to each act. Rule utilitarianism asks which general rules, if followed, tend to produce the greatest overall utility, and then judges acts by those rules.
行为功利主义与规则功利主义： 行为功利主义直接将效用原则应用于每个行为。规则功利主义则先追问哪些普遍规则，若被遵守，往往产生最大总体效用，然后以此规则评判行为。
Kantian ethics: A deontological theory where the moral worth of an action lies in its being done from duty, out of respect for the moral law. The only unqualifiedly good thing is a good will.
康德伦理学： 一种义务论，行为的道德价值在于其出于义务、出于对道德律的敬重而履行。唯一无条件善的东西是善良意志。
Categorical imperative: Kant's supreme principle of morality, formulated in several ways: act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law; and treat humanity always as an end, never merely as a means.
定言令式： 康德的最高道德原则，有多种表述：要只按照你同时能够愿意它成为一条普遍法则的准则去行动；以及永远把人当作目的，而不仅仅是手段。
Virtue ethics: An agent-centred theory focusing on character and virtues (e.g., courage, honesty). Aristotle's concept of eudaimonia (flourishing) is the ultimate goal, achieved by acting in accordance with the golden mean and phronesis (practical wisdom).
美德伦理学： 行动者中心的伦理理论，关注品格与美德（如勇敢、诚实）。亚里士多德的“eudaimonia”（繁荣/幸福）是最终目的，通过遵循中道和运用实践智慧（phronesis）实现。
Moral realism & Anti-realism: Moral realism holds that moral facts and properties exist independently of human minds. Anti-realism denies this: e.g., emotivism claims moral utterances merely express emotions. Cognitivism and non-cognitivism are related meta-ethical stances on whether moral sentences are truth-apt.
道德实在论与反实在论： 道德实在论主张道德事实与属性独立于人心而存在。反实在论否认此点：例如情感主义认为道德言说只是表达情感。认知主义与非认知主义则是元伦理学中关于道德语句是否承载真值的立场。
5. Metaphysics and Mind | 形而上学与心灵哲学
Though metaphysical themes often intersect with the problem of evil and personal identity, a distinct set of technical terms emerges around the mind–body debate and free will. Understanding substance dualism, physicalism, and the consequences for moral responsibility will strengthen your essay responses significantly.
虽然形而上学主题常与恶的问题和人格同一性交叉，但在心身之争与自由意志领域涌现出一套独特的技术术语。理解实体二元论、物理主义及其对道德责任的影响，将显著增强你的论文答题力度。
Substance dualism: The view, associated with Descartes, that mind and body are two fundamentally different substances: mental is non-physical and thinking; physical is extended and non-thinking. Interaction remains a major difficulty.
实体二元论： 笛卡尔所主张的观点，认为心灵与身体是两种根本不同的实体：心灵是非物质的、能思考的；身体是有广延的、不能思考的。二者如何交互是一大难题。
Physicalism (Materialism): The theory that everything that exists is physical, or supervenes on the physical. Mental states are identical to brain states (identity theory), or can be functionally defined (functionalism).
物理主义（唯物主义）： 存在的一切皆为物理的，或随附于物理
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