📚 Year 11 SQA Science: Core Knowledge Review | Year 11 SQA 科学：核心知识点梳理
In the SQA Science curriculum for Year 11 (National 5 level), you will encounter fundamental concepts from biology, chemistry, and physics that build a strong foundation for further study. This article consolidates the essential knowledge you need to understand, covering everything from cell structure to forces and energy transformations.
在 Year 11（National 5 级别）的 SQA 科学课程中，你将学习生物学、化学和物理学的基本概念，为后续学习打下坚实基础。本文整理了你必须掌握的核心知识点，涵盖从细胞结构到力与能量转换等全部内容。
1. Scientific Method and Experiment Design | 科学方法与实验设计
A hypothesis is a testable prediction based on observations. In SQA investigations, it is often phrased as an "If... then..." statement to clearly link cause and effect.
假设是基于观察的可检验预测。在 SQA 调查中，它通常以“如果……那么……”的形式表述，以清晰地联系因果关系。
Three main variables are identified: the independent variable (the one you change), the dependent variable (the one you measure), and controlled variables (kept constant to ensure a fair test).
实验中要识别三种主要变量：自变量（你改变的变量）、因变量（你测量的变量）和控制变量（保持恒定以确保公平测试）。
To improve reliability, repeat measurements are taken and an average is calculated. Anomalous results should be identified and excluded from the calculation.
为提高可靠性，需进行重复测量并计算平均值。异常结果应被识别并从计算中剔除。
2. Cell Biology: Structure and Transport | 细胞生物学：结构与运输
All living organisms are made of cells. Plant cells have a rigid cell wall, chloroplasts for photosynthesis, and a large permanent vacuole, while animal cells lack these structures but both contain a nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, and mitochondria.
所有生物体都由细胞构成。植物细胞有坚硬的细胞壁、进行光合作用的叶绿体和一个大液泡，而动物细胞没有这些结构，但两者都含有细胞核、细胞质、细胞膜和线粒体。
| Organelle / 细胞器 | Function / 功能 |
|---|---|
| Nucleus / 细胞核 | Controls cell activities and stores DNA / 控制细胞活动并储存 DNA |
| Mitochondria / 线粒体 | Site of aerobic respiration, releasing energy / 有氧呼吸场所，释放能量 |
| Cell membrane / 细胞膜 | Controls entry and exit of substances / 控制物质进出 |
Substances move across cell membranes by diffusion (net movement from high to low concentration), osmosis (diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane), and active transport (movement against the concentration gradient using energy).
物质通过扩散（从高浓度到低浓度的净移动）、渗透（水通过选择透过性膜的扩散）和主动运输（利用能量逆浓度梯度移动）穿过细胞膜。
3. Atoms, Elements, and the Periodic Table | 原子、元素与周期表
An atom consists of a nucleus containing protons (positive charge) and neutrons (neutral), with electrons (negative charge) orbiting in shells. The atomic number is the number of protons, and the mass number is the total of protons plus neutrons.
原子由一个包含质子（带正电）和中子（不带电）的原子核以及按电子层排布的电子（带负电）组成。原子序数是质子数，质量数是质子数与中子数之和。
Elements are arranged in the periodic table in order of increasing atomic number. Groups are vertical columns; elements in the same group have the same number of outer electrons and similar chemical properties.
元素在周期表中按原子序数递增顺序排列。族是垂直列；同一族元素具有相同的最外层电子数和相似的化学性质。
The electron arrangement of an element determines its reactivity. For example, sodium (Na) has electron configuration 2,8,1 and tends to lose its outer electron to achieve a stable full shell.
元素的电子排布决定了其活泼性。例如，钠（Na）的电子排布为 2,8,1，容易失去最外层电子以达到稳定满壳层结构。
4. Chemical Bonding and Reactions | 化学键与化学反应
Ionic bonding occurs between a metal and a non-metal, where electrons are transferred to form positive and negative ions that attract each other. Covalent bonding occurs between non-metal atoms that share pairs of electrons.
离子键存在于金属与非金属之间，电子转移形成相互吸引的阳离子和阴离子。共价键存在于非金属原子之间，它们共用电子对。
A chemical reaction can be represented by a balanced symbol equation. The total mass of reactants equals the total mass of products (conservation of mass).
化学反应可用配平的符号方程表示。反应物的总质量等于生成物的总质量（质量守恒）。
The rate of a reaction can be increased by raising temperature, increasing concentration, using a catalyst, or increasing surface area of a solid reactant. Catalysts lower the activation energy without being used up.
反应速率可通过升高温度、增大浓度、使用催化剂或增大固体反应物的表面积来提高。催化剂能降低活化能而自身不被消耗。
5. Forces and Motion | 力与运动
Speed is the distance travelled per unit time; velocity includes direction. Acceleration is the change in velocity per unit time. The equations of motion are central to solving problems.
速率是单位时间内移动的距离；速度包含方向。加速度是单位时间内速度的变化。运动方程是解题的核心。
v = d / t a = (v - u) / t
Newton' object remains at rest or in uniform motion unless acted on by an unbalanced force. Newton's Second Law relates force, mass, and acceleration: F = m a.
牛顿第一定律指出，除非受到非平衡力作用，物体将保持静止或匀速直线运动。牛顿第二定律将力、质量和加速度联系起来：F = m a。
Velocity-time graphs are used to analyse motion: the gradient gives acceleration, and the area under the graph represents displacement. A horizontal line indicates constant velocity.
速度—时间图用于分析运动：斜率表示加速度，图下面积代表位移。水平线表示匀速运动。
6. Energy: Forms and Transformations | 能量：形式与转换
Energy exists in different forms: kinetic, potential (gravitational and chemical), thermal, electrical, sound, light, and nuclear. The law of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed from one form to another.
能量以不同形式存在：动能、势能（重力势能和化学能）、热能、电能、声能、光能和核能。能量守恒定律指出，能量不能被创造或消灭，只能从一种形式转换为另一种形式。
by distance (W = F d). Power is the rate of doing work or transferring energy: P = E / t.
功的计算式为力乘以距离（W = F d）。功率是做功或转移能量的速率：P = E / t。
Heat energy can be transferred by conduction (through solids), convection (in liquids and gases via density changes), and radiation (infrared waves that can travel through a vacuum).
热能通过传导（固体中）、对流（通过密度变化在液体和气体中）和辐射（可在真空中传播的红外波）进行传递。
7. Waves and the Electromagnetic Spectrum | 波与电磁波谱
Waves transfer energy without transferring matter. Transverse waves (e.g. light, water ripples) have vibrations perpendicular to the direction of energy transfer; longitudinal waves (e.g. sound) have vibrations parallel.
波传递能量但不传递物质。横波（如光波、水波）的振动方向与能量传递方向垂直；纵波（如声波）的振动方向与之平行。
, frequency (f), amplitude, and wave speed (v = f λ). Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz).
波的关键物理量包括波长 (λ)、频率 (f)、振幅和波速 (v = f λ)。频率的单位是赫兹 (Hz)。
The electromagnetic spectrum, from longest wavelength to shortest, includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays. All travel at the speed of light in a vacuum.
电磁波谱按波长从长到短包括无线电波、微波、红外线、可见光、紫外线、X 射线和伽马射线。所有电磁波在真空中均以光速传播。
8. Reproduction and Inheritance | 生殖与遗传
Asexual reproduction involves one parent and produces genetically identical offspring (clones) through mitosis. Sexual reproduction involves two parents and produces genetically varied offspring through meiosis and fertilisation.
无性生殖涉及一个亲本，通过有丝分裂产生遗传上相同的后代（克隆）。有性生殖涉及两个亲本，通过减数分裂和受精产生遗传变异的后代。
DNA carries the genetic code as a sequence of bases (A, T, C, G). A gene is a section of DNA that codes for a protein. Chromosomes are long, coiled molecules of DNA found in the nucleus.
DNA 以碱基序列（A、T、C、G）携带遗传密码。基因是编码蛋白质的一段 DNA。染色体是细胞核内长而卷曲的 DNA 分子。
In a monohybrid cross, alleles can be dominant or recessive. A Punnett square is used to predict the possible genotypes of offspring. Homozygous means two identical alleles; heterozygous means two different alleles.
在单基因杂交中，等位基因可以是显性或隐性。庞尼特方格用于预测后代可能的基因型。纯合指两个相同等位基因；杂合指两个不同等位基因。
9. Ecosystems and Biodiversity | 生态系统与生物多样性
An ecosystem includes all the organisms (biotic factors) and the physical environment (abiotic factors) in a given area. Energy enters as sunlight and is passed along food chains from producers to primary, secondary, and tertiary consumers.
生态系统包括特定区域内所有生物（生物因素）和物理环境（非生物因素）。能量以阳光形式进入，并沿食物链从生产者传递给初级、次级和三级消费者。
Carbon is recycled through the carbon cycle via photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition, and combustion. Nitrogen is cycled through nitrogen fixation by bacteria and other processes.
碳通过光合作用、呼吸作用、分解作用和燃烧在碳循环中循环。氮通过细菌的固氮作用及其他过程在自然界中循环。
Biodiversity is the variety of life. Sampling techniques such as quadrats (for plants) and pitfall traps (for small animals) are used to estimate population sizes and distribution. An indicator species can reveal pollution levels.
生物多样性指生命的多样性。样方法（用于植物）和陷阱法（用于小动物）等取样技术用于估算种群大小和分布。指示物种能反映污染程度。
10. Human Body Systems Overview | 人体系统概述
The digestive system breaks down large insoluble molecules into small soluble ones that can be absorbed into the blood. Enzymes, which are biological catalysts, speed up digestion; amylase breaks down starch into maltose, protease breaks down proteins into amino acids, and lipase breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
消化系统将大的不溶性分子分解成可被吸收到血液中的小可溶性分子。酶是生物催化剂，能加速消化过程；淀粉酶分解淀粉为麦芽糖，蛋白酶分解蛋白质为氨基酸，脂肪酶分解脂肪为脂肪酸和甘油。
The circulatory system transports oxygen, nutrients, and waste. The heart pumps blood through arteries (away from heart), capillaries (exchange), and veins (back to heart). Red blood cells contain haemoglobin for oxygen transport.
循环系统运输氧气、营养物质和废物。心脏将血液泵入动脉（离开心脏）、毛细血管（物质交换）和静脉（返回心脏）。红细胞含有血红蛋白，用于运输氧气。
The respiratory system provides oxygen and removes carbon dioxide. Breathing involves the diaphragm and intercostal muscles changing the volume of the thorax to inhale and exhale. Gas exchange occurs in alveoli by diffusion.
呼吸系统提供氧气并排出二氧化碳。呼吸涉及膈肌和肋间肌改变胸腔容积以实现吸气和呼气。气体交换通过扩散作用在肺泡内进行。
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