📚 Year 11 CCEA Psychology: Core Knowledge Overview | Year 11 CCEA 心理学：核心知识点梳理
This article provides a concise yet thorough revision guide to the core topics in the Year 11 CCEA GCSE Psychology course. It covers essential content from research methods, memory, attachment, and social influence, all structured to support effective learning and exam preparation.
本文为 Year 11 CCEA GCSE 心理学课程的核心主题提供简明而全面的复习指南。内容涵盖研究方法、记忆、依恋和社会影响，旨在帮助高效学习与备考。
1. Research Methods in Psychology | 心理学研究方法
Psychologists use empirical methods to investigate behaviour. The most common research designs are experiments (laboratory, field and natural), correlational studies, observations and self-report techniques such as questionnaires and interviews.
心理学家使用实证方法研究行为。最常见的实验设计是实验（实验室实验、现场实验和自然实验）、相关研究、观察以及问卷和访谈等自我报告技术。
In an experiment, the researcher manipulates an independent variable (IV) and measures the effect on a dependent variable (DV), while controlling extraneous variables to establish cause and effect.
在实验中，研究者操纵自变量（IV），测量其对因变量（DV）的影响，同时控制额外变量，以确定因果关系。
Ethical guidelines set by the British Psychological Society (BPS) protect participants and require informed consent, right to withdraw, confidentiality, and protection from harm.
英国心理学会（BPS）制定的伦理准则保护参与者，要求知情同意、退出权、保密和免受伤害。
A hypothesis is a precise, testable prediction about the expected outcome, often written as a directional (one-tailed) or non‑directional (two-tailed) statement. The null hypothesis states that there will be no difference or relationship.
假设是对预期结果的精确、可检验的预测，通常写为定向（单尾）或非定向（双尾）假设。零假设陈述不存在差异或关系。
2. The Multi-Store Model of Memory | 记忆的多重储存模型
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) proposed the multi‑store model (MSM), which describes memory as consisting of three permanent structural components: sensory register, short‑term memory (STM) and long‑term memory (LTM).
Atkinson 和 Shiffrin（1968）提出了多重储存模型（MSM），将记忆描述为三个永久的结构部分：感觉登记、短时记忆（STM）和长时记忆（LTM）。
id, it passes to STM. STM has a limited capacity of 7 ± 2 items and a duration of about 18– intenance rehearsal keeps information in STM, and prolonged rehearsal transfers it to LTM.
信息通过感官进入感觉记忆。若被注意，则传入 STM。STM 容量有限，为 7 ± 2 个组块，在没有复述的情况下持续约 18–30 秒。维持性复述使信息保留在 STM，而精细复述将其转入 LTM。
LTM is believed to have unlimited capacity and a potentially permanent duration. Evidence for separation of stores comes from the serial position effect, where primacy and recency effects suggest distinct STM and LTM components.
LTM 被认为具有无限容量和潜在的永久持续时长。各储存器分离的证据来自序列位置效应，其中的首因效应和近因效应表明存在不同的 STM 和 LTM 成分。
A key strength of the MSM is its clarity; however, it oversimplifies memory by presenting STM and LTM as single, unitary stores and ignores the importance of processing depth.
MSM 的主要优势在于清晰明了；但它将 STM 和 LTM 表现为单一、整体的储存器，这一过度简化忽略了加工深度的重要性。
3. Explanations of Forgetting | 遗忘的解释
Forgetting in STM is mainly explained by decay (information fades over time) and displacement (new information pushes out old items because capacity is limited).
短时记忆的遗忘主要由消退（信息随时间消退）和干扰（新信息挤掉旧项目，因为容量有限）来解释。
In LTM, two types of interference theory dominate forgetting explanations. Proactive interference occurs when old learning disrupts new recall; retroactive interference occurs when new learning disrupts old recall.
在长时记忆中，两类干扰理论主导遗忘解释。前摄干扰发生时，旧学习干扰新回忆；倒摄干扰发生时，新学习干扰旧回忆。
Retrieval failure is another explanation, based on the idea that available information is not accessible due to a lack of retrieval cues. Context‑dependent and state‑dependent forgetting illustrate this phenomenon.
提取失败是另一种解释，基于可用信息因缺乏提取线索而不可及的观点。情境依赖遗忘和状态依赖遗忘说明了这一现象。
Understanding forgetting has real‑world applications, such as improving revision strategies by using diverse cues and avoiding interference between similar subjects.
理解遗忘具有现实应用价值，例如通过使用多样化线索和避免相似科目间的干扰来改进复习策略。
4. Eyewitness Testimony | 目击证词
Eyewitness testimony (EWT) refers to the account given by a bystander of a crime or event. Psychologists investigate factors that can make EWT inaccurate.
目击证词（EWT）是指旁观者对犯罪或事件的陈述。心理学家研究可能使目击证词不准确的因素。
A leading question contains biased wording that suggests a desired answer. Loftus and Palmer (1974) showed that changing a single verb in a question about a car collision affected speed estimates and the likelihood of reporting broken glass.
诱导性问题包含暗示期望答案的偏向性措辞。Loftus 和 Palmer（1974）表明，在关于汽车碰撞的问题中只改变一个动词，就会影响速度估计和报告玻璃碎裂的可能性。
Post‑event information can alter original memory traces through the misinformation effect. Anxiety also affects recall; according to the Yerkes–Dodson law, moderate arousal leads to optimum performance, but very high anxiety can narrow attention and reduce accuracy.
事后信息可能通过误导信息效应改变原始记忆痕迹。焦虑同样影响回忆；根据 Yerkes–Dodson 定律，中等唤醒产生最佳表现，但极高焦虑可能缩窄注意，降低准确性。
The cognitive interview technique, which uses context reinstatement, report everything, change perspective and reverse order, has been developed to improve the quantity and accuracy of eyewitness recall.
认知访谈技术通过使用情境复置、报告一切、改变视角和逆序回忆等方法，已被开发来提高目击回忆的数量和准确性。
5. Early Attachment | 早期依恋
Attachment is a strong, enduring emotional bond between an infant and a primary caregiver. Interactional behaviours such as reciprocity (mutual responsiveness) and interactional synchrony (mirrored actions and emotions) help build the bond.
依恋是婴儿与主要照料者之间一种强烈、持久的情感纽带。交互行为如互惠（相互回应）和互动同步（镜像动作和情绪）有助于建立这种纽带。
Schaffer and Emerson (1964) studied Glasgow infants and identified four stages of attachment: pre‑attachment (0–3 months), indiscriminate attachment (3–7 months), discriminate attachment (7–9 months) and multiple attachments (9+ months).
Schaffer 和 Emerson（1964）研究了格拉斯哥的婴儿，确定了依恋的四个阶段：前依恋期（0–3 个月）、无差别依恋期（3–7 个月）、有差别依恋期（7–9 个月）和多重依恋期（9 个月以上）。
During the discriminate phase, infants show separation anxiety and stranger anxiety, indicating a specific attachment to one primary caregiver. Multiple attachments develop as infants form bonds with fathers, siblings and other caregivers.
在有差别阶段，婴儿表现出分离焦虑和陌生人焦虑，这表明其对一位主要照料者形成了特定依恋。随着婴儿与父亲、兄弟姐妹和其他照料者建立纽带，多重依恋也随之发展。
The role of the father in attachment has been debated; research suggests fathers are more likely to engage in playful, stimulating interaction, often serving as a secondary attachment figure.
父亲在依恋中的角色一直备受争议；研究表明父亲更倾向于参与游戏性和刺激性互动，常常扮演次要依恋对象的角色。
6. Types of Attachment | 依恋类型
Mary Ainsworth developed the Strange Situation procedure to assess the quality of attachment between a caregiver and an infant aged 12–18 months. The controlled observation consists of eight episodes involving separations and reunions.
Mary Ainsworth 设计了陌生情境程序，以评估 12–18 个月婴儿与照料者之间的依恋质量。该控制观察由八个涉及分离和重聚的场景组成。
Three main attachment types were identified. Secure attachment (Type B) describes infants who are distressed by separation but easily soothed upon reunion; they use the caregiver as a safe base for exploration.
识别出三种主要的依恋类型。安全型依恋（B 型）描述那些分离时痛苦、但重聚时易于安抚的婴儿；他们将照料者用作探索的安全基地。
Insecure‑avoidant attachment (Type A) infants show little distress during separation and avoid contact at reunion, treating the caregiver and stranger similarly. Insecure‑resistant attachment (Type C) infants exhibit intense distress, yet resist comfort upon return.
不安全-回避型依恋（A 型）的婴儿在分离时表现出较少的痛苦，并在重聚时回避接触，对待照料者和陌生人没有差别。不安全-抗拒型依恋（C 型）的婴儿表现出极度痛苦，但在重聚时抗拒安抚。
Ainsworth suggested that attachment type is linked to maternal sensitivity. Sensitive, responsive mothers tend to raise securely attached children, while inconsistent or unresponsive parenting is associated with insecure patterns.
Ainsworth 认为依恋类型与母亲的敏感性有关。敏感、积极回应的母亲倾向于养育安全型依恋的儿童，而回应不一致或拒绝的母亲则与不安全型模式相关。
Cross‑cultural research, such as Van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s meta‑analysis, shows that secure attachment is the most common pattern globally, although cultural variations exist in the distribution of insecure types.
跨文化研究，如 Van IJzendoorn 和 Kroonenberg 的元分析，表明安全型依恋是全球最常见的模式，但不安全型的分布在文化间存在差异。
7. Separation, Deprivation and Privation | 分离、剥夺与剥夺匮乏
Separation refers to the child being away from the attachment figure for a period; deprivation involves the loss of an already formed attachment bond. Privation describes the failure to form any attachment in the first place.
分离指儿童与依恋对象短暂分开；剥夺指已形成的依恋纽带中断或丧失。剥夺匮乏则指从一开始就未能形成任何依恋关系。
Bowlby’s maternal deprivation hypothesis (1951) argued that continuous care from a mother or mother‑substitute is essential for healthy emotional development, and that prolonged deprivation during the critical period (first 2–3 years) can cause irreversible long‑term damage.
Bowlby 的母爱剥夺假说（1951）主张，母亲或母亲替代者的持续照料对于健康的情绪发展是必要的，在关键期（最初 2–3 年）遭受长期剥夺可能造成不可逆的长期损害。
His 44 Thieves study found that a high proportion of juvenile thieves had experienced early separation, suggesting a link between deprivation and later emotional maladjustment, including affectionless psychopathy.
他的 44 个小偷研究发现，很大比例的青少年罪犯经历过早期分离，提示剥夺与日后情绪失调（包括无情精神病态）之间存在关联。
Short‑ eparation are explained by the PDD model (Protest → Despair → Detachment). However, follow‑up research shows that long‑ n be mitigated by good quality substitute care and a supportive environment after reunion.
分离的短期效应可用 PDD 模型（抗议 → 绝望 → 疏离）解释。但后续研究表明，优质的替代照料和重聚后的支持性环境可以减轻长期影响。
Studies of institutionalised children, such as those by Rutter, demonstrate the devastating effects of privation; however, early adoption into nurturing families can lead to significant recovery, indicating a degree of resilience.
对机构养育儿童的研究（如 Rutter 的研究）揭示了剥夺匮乏的破坏性影响；然而，早期被领养至关爱家庭可带来显著恢复，表明存在一定的心理韧性。
8. Conformity | 从众
Conformity is a type of social influence where an individual changes their belief, attitude or behaviour to match the norms of a social group. It can result from real or imagined group pressure.
从众是一种社会影响形式，指个体改变自己的信念、态度或行为以符合社会群体的规范。它可能源于真实的或想象的群体压力。
Asch (1951) investigated conformity using a line‑judgment task. In a group of confederates who deliberately gave wrong answers, about 37% of genuine participants conformed at least once. The average conformity rate was around 33% across all critical trials.
Asch（1951）使用线条判断任务研究从众。在与故意给出错误答案的假被试同组时，约 37% 的真实参与者在至少一次关键试验中产生了从众。所有关键试验的平均从众率约为 33%。
In Asch’s variation studies, conformity increased with group size up to about three confederates, decreased when the task was more difficult (informational influence) and virtually disappeared when the participant could give answers in private. The presence of a dissenter greatly reduced conformity.
在 Asch 的变量研究中，当假被试增加到约三人时从众量增加，任务难度增加（信息性影响）时从众上升，而当参与者可私下回答时从众几乎消失。一名异议者的存在极大降低了从众。
Two explanations for conformity are normative social influence (wanting to be liked and accepted) and informational social influence (wanting to be right, especially in ambiguous situations).
从众的两种解释是规范性社会影响（希望被喜欢和接受）和信息性社会影响（希望正确，尤其在模糊情境下）。
9. Obedience | 服从
Obedience is a form of social influence in which an individual follows direct orders from an authority figure. It involves a hierarchical power structure.
服从是社会影响的一种形式，其中个体遵从权威人物的直接命令。它涉及层级权力结构。
Milgram (1963) tested how far ordinary people would go in obeying an instruction to administer increasingly severe electric shocks to a 'learner'. In the baseline study, 65% of participants continued to the maximum 450 volt level, despite hearing protests from the confederate.
Milgram（1963）测试了普通人在执行向“学习者”施加越来越强电击的指令时会走多远。在基线研究中，65% 的参与者持续到最高 450 伏特，尽管听到了假被试的抗议。
Situational factors significantly affected obedience levels. When the experiment was conducted in a run‑down office block instead of Yale University, obedience dropped. Proximity variations (e.g. learner in the same room, touch proximity) also reduced obedience, as did having the experimenter give orders over the telephone.
情境因素显著影响服从水平。当实验在破旧办公楼而非耶鲁大学进行时，服从率下降。接近性变化（如学习者同处一室、接触性接近）同样降低了服从，实验者通过电话下达命令也降低了服从。
The agentic state theory proposes that people shift from an autonomous state to an agentic state when they perceive themselves as acting as an agent for authority, thereby absolving personal responsibility. Legitimacy of authority and proximity are key influences.
代理状态理论提出，当人们认为自己是权威的代理人行事时，会从自主状态转变为代理状态，从而免除个人责任。权威的合法性与接近性是关键影响因素。
Milgram’s work raised significant ethical issues, including deception, lack of informed consent and psychological harm. Despite its controversy, the study remains a powerful demonstration of obedience to authority.
Milgram 的工作引发了显著的伦理问题，包括欺骗、缺乏知情同意和心理伤害。尽管存在争议，该研究仍是对权威服从的有力证明。
10. Prosocial Behaviour and the Bystander Effect | 亲社会行为与旁观者效应
Prosocial behaviour describes voluntary actions intended to benefit others, such as helping, sharing and comforting. The bystander effect is the finding that individuals are less likely to offer help when others are present.
亲社会行为描述旨在使他人受益的自发行为，如帮助、分享和安慰。旁观者效应是指个人在有他人在场时提供帮助的可能性降低的现象。
The murder of Kitty Genovese in 1964 spurred research into the bystander effect. Latané and Darley (1970) proposed a five‑stage cognitive model of bystander intervention: noticing the event, interpreting it as an emergency, assuming responsibility, knowing how to help, and implementing the decision.
1964 年的 Kitty Genovese 谋杀案激发了对旁观者效应的研究。Latané 和 Darley（1970）提出了旁观者干预的五阶段认知模型：注意事件、将其解释为紧急状况、承担责任感、知道如何帮助以及执行决定。
Two key processes underlie the bystander effect. Diffusion of responsibility occurs when people feel less personal responsibility because others are available to help. Pluralistic ignorance happens when individuals look to others' reactions to determine whether an ambiguous situation is really an emergency.
旁观者效应背后有两个关键过程。责任分散是指因为他人也可以提供帮助，个人的责任感知降低。多数无知是指个体根据他人的反应来判断模糊情境是否真的是紧急状况。
Bystander intervention is more likely when the situation is clearly an emergency, the potential helper has the necessary competence, a personal relationship exists with the victim, and there are few other witnesses. Mood and model can also promote helping.
当情况明显是紧急事件、潜在助人者具备相应能力、与受害者存在个人关系、目击者较少时，旁观者干预更可能发生。情绪和榜样也能促进助人行为。
Understanding these factors has practical applications in education and public information campaigns, which teach people to recognise barriers and take direct responsibility to help in emergencies.
理解这些因素在教育与公众宣传活动中具有实际应用价值，能够教导人们识别障碍并在紧急情况中承担直接责任去帮助他人。
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