📚 Year 11 CCEA Chemistry: Quick-Reference Formula & Theorem Handbook | CCEA Year 11 化学：公式定理速查手册
This handbook collates all the essential formulas, definitions and theorems you need for the CCEA Year 11 Chemistry course. Use it as a quick revision tool to reinforce your understanding of quantitative chemistry, energetics, rates and key principles. Each section presents a concept first in English and then in Chinese, so you can study seamlessly in both languages.
本手册汇总了 CCEA Year 11 化学课程中所有必备的公式、定义和定理。可用作快速复习工具，巩固你对定量化学、能量学、速率和关键原理的理解。每个小节先用英文再用中文呈现概念，让你可以无缝地双语学习。
1. Atomic Structure & Relative Masses | 原子结构与相对质量
Atoms consist of protons, neutrons and electrons. The atomic number (Z) equals the number of protons. The mass number (A) equals protons plus neutrons. Relative atomic mass (Aᵣ) is the weighted average mass of an atom compared to 1/12 of the mass of a carbon‑12 atom.
原子由质子、中子和电子组成。原子序数 (Z) 等于质子数。质量数 (A) 等于质子加中子数。相对原子质量 (Aᵣ) 是一个原子的加权平均质量与一个碳‑12 原子质量的 1/12 之比。
Relative molecular mass (Mᵣ) is the sum of the relative atomic masses of all atoms in a molecule. For ions, we use relative formula mass.
相对分子质量 (Mᵣ) 是分子中所有原子的相对原子质量之和。对于离子化合物，使用相对式量。
- Number of neutrons = mass number – atomic number | 中子数 = 质量数 – 原子序数
- Aᵣ = (average mass of one atom) ÷ (1/12 × mass of one ¹²C atom) | Aᵣ = (一个原子的平均质量) ÷ (1/12 × 一个 ¹²C 原子的质量)
2. The Mole Concept & Avogadro’s Theorem | 摩尔概念与阿伏伽德罗定律
One mole of any substance contains 6.02 × 10²³ particles (Avogadro' ass of one mole of a substance in grams is numerically equal to its relative formula mass.
1 mol 任何物质都含有 6.02 × 10²³ 个粒子 (阿伏伽德罗常数 Nₐ)。1 mol 物质的质量 (以克计) 在数值上等于其相对式量。
Number of moles = mass (g) ÷ Mᵣ
物质的量 (mol) = 质量 (g) ÷ Mᵣ
| Symbol | Meaning | Unit |
| n | Amount of substance | mol |
| m | Mass | g |
| Mᵣ | Molar mass | g mol⁻¹ |
Avogadro’s theorem: Equal volumes of all gases, at the same temperature and pressure, contain the same number of molecules.
阿伏伽德罗定律：在同温同压下，相同体积的任何气体含有相同数目的分子。
3. Empirical & Molecular Formulae | 实验式与分子式
The empirical formula is the simplest whole‑number ratio of atoms in a compound. The molecular formula is the actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule.
实验式是化合物中各原子最简整数比的表示。分子式是分子中每种元素原子的实际数目。
To determine empirical formula:
求实验式的步骤：
- Convert % or mass to moles (÷ by Aᵣ) | 将百分比或质量换算为物质的量 (除以相对原子质量)
- Divide each by the smallest number of moles | 每项除以最小的物质的量
- Obtain whole‑number ratio | 得到整数比
ormula = (empirical formula)ₙ, where n = relative molecular mass ÷ empirical formula mass.
分子式 = (实验式)ₙ，其中 n = 相对分子质量 ÷ 实验式质量。
4. Reacting Masses & Percentage Yield | 反应质量与产率
Stoichiometric calculations use the mole ratios from a balanced equation. The mass of one reactant or product can be found by:
化学计量计算利用配平方程式的摩尔比。可通过以下步骤求某反应物或产物的质量：
mass A → moles A → moles B → mass B
质量 A → 物质的量 A → 物质的量 B → 质量 B
Percentage yield = (actual yield ÷ theoretical yield) × 100%. It measures the efficiency of a reaction.
产率 = (实际产量 ÷ 理论产量) × 100%。它衡量反应的效率。
Limiting reactant: the substance that is completely used up in a reaction, determining the amount of product formed. Excess reactant is present in more than required.
限量反应物：在反应中被完全消耗的物质，决定了产物的产量。过量反应物则多于所需量。
5. Concentration & Dilution | 浓度与稀释
Concentration is the amount of solute dissolved in a given volume of solution.
浓度是一定体积溶液中溶质的物质的量或质量。
Concentration (mol dm⁻³) = amount of solute (mol) ÷ volume (dm³)
浓度 (mol dm⁻³) = 溶质的物质的量 (mol) ÷ 体积 (dm³)
For dilution, the number of moles remains constant:
稀释时，溶质的物质的量不变：
c₁V₁ = c₂V₂ (where c is concentration, V is volume)
c₁V₁ = c₂V₂ (c 为浓度，V 为体积)
between g dm⁻³ and mol dm⁻³, use: concentration (mol dm⁻³) = concentration (g dm⁻³) ÷ Mᵣ.
以 g dm⁻³ 为单位的浓度 = 质量 (g) ÷ 体积 (dm³)。在 g dm⁻³ 和 mol dm⁻³ 之间转换：浓度 (mol dm⁻³) = 浓度 (g dm⁻³) ÷ Mᵣ。
6. Gas Volumes & Molar Volume | 气体体积与摩尔体积
At room temperature and pressure (RTP, 20 °C and 1 atm), one mole of any gas occupies 24 dm³ (the molar volume).
在常温常压下 (RTP, 20 °C、1 atm)，1 mol 任何气体的体积为 24 dm³ (摩尔体积)。
Volume of gas (dm³) = amount of gas (mol) × 24
气体体积 (dm³) = 气体的物质的量 (mol) × 24
This relationship is used to find the volume of gas produced in a reaction or to calculate moles from a measured volume.
该关系用于计算反应产生的气体体积，或从实测体积求算物质的量。
7. Rate of Reaction | 反应速率
The rate of a chemical reaction measures how quickly reactants are used up or products are formed. It can be expressed as:
化学反应速率衡量反应物消耗或产物生成的快慢。可用下式表示：
rate = change in concentration / time
速率 = 浓度变化 / 时间
For a reaction producing a gas, rate can be followed by measuring the volume of gas evolved per unit time.
对于产生气体的反应，可通过测量单位时间内逸出的气体体积来监测速率。
Factors affecting rate: concentration, temperature, surface area, catalysts. Increasing temperature increases the kinetic energy of particles and the frequency of successful collisions (collision theory).
影响速率的因素：浓度、温度、表面积、催化剂。升高温度增加粒子动能及有效碰撞频率 (碰撞理论)。
8. Energetics & Calorimetry | 能量学与量热法
Enthalpy change (ΔH) is the heat energy transferred in a reaction at constant pressure. Exothermic reactions release heat (ΔH negative); endothermic reactions absorb heat (ΔH positive).
焓变 (ΔH) 是在恒压下反应传递的热量。放热反应释放热量 (ΔH 为负)；吸热反应吸收热量 (ΔH 为正)。
In a calorimetry experiment, energy change is calculated using:
在量热实验中，能量变化用下式计算：
Q = mcΔT
Where Q is heat energy (J), m is mass of water (g), c is specific heat capacity of water (4.2 J g⁻¹ °C⁻¹), ΔT is temperature change (°C).
其中 Q 为热量 (J)，m 为水的质量 (g)，c 为水的比热容 (4.2 J g⁻¹ °C⁻¹)，ΔT 为温度变化 (°C)。
Molar enthalpy change (kJ mol⁻¹) = Q / n, where n is moles of limiting reactant.
摩尔焓变 (kJ mol⁻¹) = Q / n，n 为限量反应物的物质的量。
9. Acids, Bases & pH | 酸、碱与pH
An acid is a proton (H⁺) donor; a base is a proton acceptor. The pH scale (0–14) measures the acidity of a solution: pH = –log₁₀[H⁺]. A lower pH means higher [H⁺].
酸是质子 (H⁺) 的供体；碱是质子的受体。pH 标度 (0–14) 量度溶液的酸度：pH = –log₁₀[H⁺]。pH 越低，[H⁺] 越高。
neutralisation reaction: acid + base → salt + water. The ionic equation is H⁺ + OH⁻ → H₂O.
中和反应：酸 + 碱 → 盐 + 水。离子方程式为 H⁺ + OH⁻ → H₂O。
a titration, the equivalence point occurs when moles of H⁺ = moles of OH⁻. Useful formula:
在滴定中，等当点出现在 H⁺ 的物质的量 = OH⁻ 的物质的量时。实用公式：
cₐVₐ / cbV_b = nₐ / nb (based on balanced equation)
cₐVₐ / cbV_b = nₐ / nb (基于配平方程式)
10. Electrolysis & Half-Equations | 电解与半方程式
Electrolysis is the decomposition of an electrolyte by an electric current. Cations migrate to the cathode (negative electrode); anions migrate to the anode (positive electrode).
电解是利用电流分解电解质的过程。阳离子移向阴极 (负极)；阴离子移向阳极 (正极)。
At the cathode, reduction occurs (gain of electrons). At the anode, oxidation occurs (loss of electrons). This can be summarised by OIL RIG.
阴极发生还原反应 (得电子)。阳极发生氧化反应 (失电子)。可概括为：OIL RIG (氧化是失电子，还原是得电子)。
Half‑equations show electron transfer. Example for molten sodium chloride:
半方程式显示电子转移。以熔融氯化钠为例：
- Cathode: Na⁺ + e⁻ → Na | 阴极：Na⁺ + e⁻ → Na
- Anode: 2Cl⁻ → Cl₂ + 2e⁻ | 阳极：2Cl⁻ → Cl₂ + 2e⁻
time (t): Q (C) = I (A) × t (s). In Year 11 we often use this to compare product amounts.
电量 (Q) 与电流 (I) 及时间 (t) 的关系：Q (C) = I (A) × t (s)。在 Year 11 学习中，我们常用此式比较产物的量。
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